- GÚAZAÚLÈ
,
ABUÚ
H®AÚMED
MOH®AMMAD
b.
Moháammad
T®u@s^
(450-505/1058-1111),
one
of
the
greatest
systematic
Persian
thinkers
of
medieval
Islam
and
a
prolific
Sunni
author
on
the
religious
sciences
(Islamic
law,
philosophy,
theology,
and
mysticism)
in
Saljuq
times.
i.
Biography.
ii.
The
Eháya@÷
¿olum
al-d^n.
iii.
The
K^m^a@-ye
sa¿a@dat.
See
KÈMÈAÚ-YE
SA¿AÚDAT.
iv.
Minor
Persian
works.
v.
As
a faq^h.
vi.
And
theology.
vii.
And
the
Ba@tÂen^s.
viii.
Impact
on
Islamic
thought.
See
Supplement.
i.
BIOGRAPHY
A
man
of
Persian
descent,
GÚaza@l^
(variant
name
GÚazza@l^;
Med.
Latin
form,
Algazel;
honorific
title,
H®ojjat-al-Esla@m
"The
Proof
of
Islam"),
was
born
at
T®u@s
in
Khorasan
in
450/1058
and
grew
up
as
an
orphan
together
with
his
younger
brother
Ahámad
GÚaza@l^
(d.
520/1126;
q.v.).
After
instruction
in
Islamic
jurisprudence
as
a
teenager
in
Jorja@n,
he
became
a
student
of
the
leading
Ash¿arite
theologian
and
Shafi¿ite
jurist
Ema@m-al-H®aramayn
Abu'l-Ma¿a@l^
Z^a@÷-al-D^n
¿Abd-al-Malek
Jovayn^
(d.
478/1085)
in
N^æa@pu@r,
where
he
also
studied
with
the
Sufi
master
Abu@
¿Al^
Fa@rmadò^
(d.
477/1084-85),
a
disciple
of
Abu@
Sa¿^d
b.
Abi'l-K¨ayr
(d.
440/1049,
q.v.),
Abu'l-Qa@sem
Qoæayr^
(d.
465/1072),
and
Abu'l-Qa@sem
Korraka@n^
(d.
469/1076).
In
478/1085,
after
the
death
of
his
teachers,
GÚaza@l^
joined
the
circle
of
scholars
at
the
camp
and
court
of
the
Saljuq
vizier
Kúa@ja
Nezáa@m-al-Molk
(assassinated
in
485/1092,
q.v.),
the
patron
of
colleges
(madrasas)
he
had
founded.
Appointed
by
Nezáa@m-al-Molk
in
484/1091,
GÚaza@l^
became
an
influential
professor
on
Shafi¿ite
jurisprudence
for
four
years
at
the
Nezáa@m^ya
madrasa
in
Baghdad
(Glaasen,
pp.
131-75).
Overcome
by
a
severe
physical
illness
and
plagued
by
a
nagging
skepticism
born
of
his
intensive
self-study
of
Islamic
philosophy,
GÚaza@l^
decided
to
abandon
his
teaching
position
in
488/1095
in
favor
of
his
brother
Ahámad.
This
year
signaled
a
deep
identity
crisis
in
GÚaza@l^.
Shaken
by
epistemological
doubt,
he
resolved
to
seek
certitude
(yaq^n)
as
the
underpinnings
of
his
intellectual
knowledge.
His
crisis
occurred
only
a
few
years
after
political
rivals,
in
concert
with
Neza@r^
Isma¿ili
enemies
against
whom
GÚaza@l^
had
written
a
refutation
on
the
order
of
caliph
al-Mostazáher
(487-512/1094-1118),
had
engineered
his
patron's
assassination.
Using
a
pilgrimage
to
Mecca
as
the
pretext
to
escape
Baghdad,
GÚaza@l^
gave
up
his
academic
career.
He
was
particularly
disillusioned
by
the
corruption
affecting
the
scholarly
circles
of
the
college
in
the
aftermath
of
the
political
turmoil
following
Rokn-al-D^n
Bark^a@roq's
(q.v.)
teenage
accession
to
the
Saljuq
sultanate
in
485/1092.
The
next
eleven
years,
from
488/1095
until
499/1106,
when
GÚaza@l^
returned
to
his
academic
career
as
a
professor
at
the
college
of
N^æa@pu@r,
were
doubtless
a
period
of
intense
intellectual
incubation,
although
specific
details
about
his
life
and
work
in
this
period
remain
historically
uncertain.
According
to
his
autobiography,
GÚaza@l^
first
went
to
Damascus
where
he
taught
in
the
za@w^a
of
Nasár
Maqdes^
(d.
490/1097;
Makdisi,
p.
45).
Then
he
journeyed
from
Syria
to
Jerusalem
and
visited
the
tomb
of
Abraham
at
Hebron
in
489/1096,
where
he
made
the
vow
never
again
to
take
money
from
the
government,
never
again
to
serve
a
ruler,
and
never
again
to
enter
into
scholastic
disputations
(van
Ess,
p.
61).
He
then
went
to
Medina
and
Mecca,
where
he
performed
the
pilgrimage
in
489/1096,
returned
to
Syria,
possibly
after
a
short
visit
to
Alexandria
in
Egypt,
and
finally,
after
a
brief
stay
in
Baghdad
in
490/1097,
settled
down
at
T®u@s.
During
this
intellectual
exile
from
organized
teaching,
GÚaza@l^
lived
in
great
solitude
and
poverty,
engaged
in
ascetical
exercises
and
mystical
prayer,
and
composed
his
most
famous
work,
Eháya@÷
¿olu@m
al-d^n
"The
revival
of
the
religious
sciences,"
which
advocates
Sufi
spirituality
as
the
fulcrum
of
Islamic
religion.
Although
this
work
bears
all
the
marks
of
the
manual
of
a
great
teacher
and
would
thus
presuppose
GÚaza@l^
lecturing
to
students,
the
sources
offer
few
clues
about
who
his
crucial
Sufi
contacts
might
have
been
on
his
journeys,
or,
barring
a
few
minor
exceptions,
who
his
audience
might
have
been
in
his
hometown.
In
499/1106,
Nezáa@m-al-Molk's
son
Fakòr-al-Molk
(q.v.),
who
had
become
the
vizier
of
Sanjar,
the
Saljuq
sultan
of
Khorasan,
invited
GÚaza@l^
to
return
to
lecturing
at
the
Nezáa@m^ya
of
N^æa@pu@r.
Breaking
the
vow
he
had
made
at
Abraham's
tomb,
GÚaza@l^
accepted
the
invitation
and
taught
in
N^æa@pu@r
until
shortly
before
his
death,
animated
by
his
belief
that
it
was
God's
will
for
him
to
function
as
the
renewer
of
religion
(mojadded)
at
the
threshold
of
the
new
Islamic
century.
His
autobiography,
al-Monqedò
men
al-zµala@l
"The
deliverer
from
error"
(cf.
Watt,
1953;
tr.
McCarthy,
pp.
61-143;
first
translation
into
French
by
A.
Schmölders,
Paris,
1842)
dates
from
this
final
period
of
GÚaza@l^'s
teaching,
during
the
last
months
of
which
he
retired
to
the
Sufi
retreat
(kòa@naqa@h)
he
had
established
for
his
disciples
earlier
in
T®u@s.
He
died
there
in
Joma@da@
II
505/December
1111.
The
chronology
of
GÚaza@l^'s
biography
has
been
established
by
Margaret
Smith
(1944),
Maurice
Bouyges
and
Michel
Allard,
and
W.
Montgomery
Watt,
(1963)
on
the
basis
of
GÚaza@l^'s
autobiography
and
a
great
number
of
biographical
accounts
found
in
the
Arabic
primary
sources
(listed
in
D¨ahab^,
p.
115).
GÚaza@l^
was
a
prolific
author
whose
writings,
examined
chronologically
by
Bouyges
and
Allard
(pp.
85-170;
Badaw^),
number
about
five
dozen
authentic
works,
in
addition
to
which
some
300
other
titles
of
works
of
uncertain,
doubtful,
or
spurious
authorship,
many
of
them
duplicates
owing
to
varying
titles,
are
cited
in
Muslim
bibliographical
literature.
The
charge
that
books
were
falsely
ascribed
to
GÚaza@l^
increased
after
the
dissemination
of
the
large
corpus
of
Ebn
¿Arab^'s
works
(d.
638/1240,
q.v.).
Nevertheless,
it
is
a
questionable
criterion
of
authenticity
to
reject
works
of
GÚaza@l^
that
are
highly
mystical
or
esoteric
in
character
as
spurious,
separating
them
from
works
said
to
be
genuine
because
they
are
rather
rational
or
exoteric
in
nature.
It
is
also
an
all-too
simplistic
assumption
that
GÚaza@l^'s
writings
move
from
exoteric
topics
to
mystical
ones
as
he
advances
in
age,
though
some
of
the
most
esoteric
writings
attributed
to
Ga@za@l^
do
belong
to
the
last
phase
of
his
literary
activity.
The
rule-of-thumb
criterion
suggested
by
Watt
(1952,
pp.
24-45;
idem,
1961,
pp.
121-31)
that
GÚaza@l^
never
directly
contradicted
on
"higher"
levels
what
he
maintained
on
lower
levels,
forces
a
harmonizing
consistency
on
a
highly
prolific
author
who
underwent
severe
personal
crises
and
shifts
of
intellectual
outlook.
Already
Ebn
T®ofayl
(d.
581/1185,
q.v.)
observed
that
GÚaza@l^
wrote
for
different
audiences,
ordinary
men
and
the
elite
(pp.
69-72),
and
GÚaza@l^
himself
completed
the
rather
moderate
theological
treatise,
Elja@m
al-¿awa@mm
¿an
¿elm
al-kala@m
"The
restraining
of
ordinary
men
from
theology,"
in
the
last
month
before
his
death
(cf.
Hourani).
In
addition
to
the
aforementioned
autobiography,
which
is
the
retrospective
story
of
his
religious
development
rather
than
a
historical
account
of
his
life
curve,
the
following
are
considered
to
be
the
major
works
of
GÚaza@l^,
all
undisputedly
penned
by
him.
The
legal
writings
of
GÚaza@l^,
who
followed
the
Shafi¿ite
school
of
law,
include
the
compendia,
known
as
al-Bas^tÂ,
al-Was^tÂ,
and
al-Waj^z
that
still
await
scholarly
analysis
and
may
represent
paraphrases
of
his
teachers'
works.
The
first
two
are
treatises
on
legal
applications
(foru@¿
al-feqh)
written
early
in
his
career,
while
the
third
one
is
an
epitome
compiled
in
495/1101.
GÚaza@l^'s
principal
treatise
on
the
foundations
of
Islamic
jurisprudence,
entitled
al-Mostasáfa@
men
¿elm
al-osáu@l
"The
essential
theory
of
legal
thought"
was
written
in
503/1109
at
N^æa@pu@r
(Ebn
Kòalleka@n,
ed.
¿Abba@s,
IV,
p.
217).
This
last
great
treatise,
completed
two
years
before
his
death,
examines
the
rules
of
law
(aháka@m)
and
their
foundations
(osáu@l)
with
unparalleled
methodical
acumen
(Laoust,
pp.
152-82).
A
generation
after
GÚaza@l^,
scholars
such
as
Abu@
¿Abd-Alla@h
Moháammad
b.
¿Al^
Maza@r^
(d.
536/1141-42),
praised
GÚaza@l^
for
his
comprehensive
knowledge
of
the
legal
applications
but
criticized
his
grasp
of
the
legal
foundations
(Sobk^,
T®abaqa@t2
VI,
p.
241).
High
praise
was
expressed
also
by
Ebn
¿Abba@d
Rond^
(d.
792/1390),
who,
on
account
of
GÚaza@l^'s
first
half
of
his
voluminous
Eháya@÷,
called
GÚaza@l^
an
authority
on
Islamic
jurisprudence
(pp.
88-89).
Except
for
Sufism,
no
other
field
of
the
Islamic
sciences
absorbed
so
much
of
GÚaza@l^'s
time
and
energy
as
that
of
jurisprudence
(Lazarus
Yafeh,
pp.
373-411).
He
was
in
the
first
place
a
professor
of
Shafi¿ite
law.
GÚaza@l^'s
study
of
Islamic
philosophy
received
initial
motivation
from
his
teacher
Jovayn^,
but
benefited
mainly
from
his
self-study
of
the
works
of
Abu@
Nasár
Fa@ra@b^
and
Avicenna
(qq.v.)
during
his
years
as
professor
at
the
Nezáa@m^ya
of
Baghdad.
GÚaza@l^
approached
philosophy
in
three
stages.
First
(pace
Graef,
ZDMG
110,
1961,
pp.
162-63),
he
summarized
the
principal
points
of
philosophy
by
compiling
a
systematic
exposition,
entitled
Maqa@sáed
al-fala@sefa
"The
intentions
of
the
philosophers,"
which
became
a
highly
acclaimed
treatise
in
medieval
Europe
upon
its
translation
into
Latin
(Logica
et
Philosophia
Algazelis
Arabis)
by
Dominic
Gundisalvi
in
the
12th
century
(Muckle;
cf.
P.
Liechtenstein's
Latin
edition,
Venices,
1506),
and
into
Hebrew
in
the
13th
century
(Steinschneider).
Second,
in
the
first
fortnight
of
488/1095,
he
completed
the
Taha@fot
al-fala@sefa
"The
incoherence
of
the
philosophers"
(ed.
M.
Bouyges
with
a
summary
in
Latin,
Beirut,
1927),
a
controversial
work
of
refutation
which
provoked
the
great
philosopher
of
Muslim
Spain,
Ebn
Roæd/Averroes
(d.
595/1198)
to
reply
with
his
own
refutation
(Taha@fot
al-taha@fot).
In
the
Taha@fot
al-fala@sefa
GÚaza@l^
enumerated
twenty
maxims
of
the
philosophers
that
he
found
to
be
objectionable
or
inconsistent
with
their
own
claims,
three
of
them
justifying
the
charge
of
unbelief:
the
philosophers'
claim
of
the
eternity
of
the
world,
their
denial
of
God's
knowledge
of
particulars,
and
their
repudiation
of
the
resurrection
of
the
body.
GÚaza@l^
tended
to
reject
the
necessary
link
of
causality
since
all
that
can
be
affirmed
is
a
post-hoc
rather
than
a
propter
hoc,
as
shown
by
his
example
that
the
combustion
of
cotton
occurs
at
the
moment
of
its
contact
with
fire,
while
it
cannot
be
demonstrated
that
it
occurs
because
of
the
contact
between
cotton
and
fire.
For
GÚaza@l^
human
reason
alone
is
unable
to
attain
certitude,
though
he
paradoxically
uses
his
own
certain
reason
to
destroy
the
certitudes
of
the
philosophers
by
borrowing
their
method
for
his
arguments!
Third,
GÚaza@l^
authored
three
treatises
that
prepared
the
ground
for
his
subsequent
systematic
writings
on
theology,
his
elaborate
Me¿ya@r
al-¿elm
"The
standard
of
knowledge"
and
his
brief
Meháakk
al-nazáar
"The
touchstone
of
thought,"
both
treatises
on
logic,
as
well
as
his
M^za@n
al-¿amal
"The
balance
of
action,"
a
tract
on
philosophical
ethics.
GÚaza@l^'s
writings
on
Islamic
theology
(¿elm
al-kala@m)
signal
a
significant
stage
of
development
for
its
rational
methodology
because
he
used
the
Aristotelian
syllogism
and
systematically
applied
it
to
theological
thought.
GÚaza@l^'s
influence
on
theological
method,
noted
in
Ebn
K¨aldu@n's
(d.
808/1406,
q.v.)
Moqaddema
(tr.,
III,
p.
52),
is
evidenced
in
his
principal
work
on
Islamic
theology,
al-Eqtesáa@d
fi'l-
e¿teqa@d
"The
just
mean
in
belief"
(Asín
Palacios,
1929)
completed
in
488/1095,
the
year
of
his
departure
from
Baghdad.
This
work
weighs
traditional
theological
maxims
(maintained
by
major
scholars
of
law,
e.g.,
a@fe¿^,
Ma@lek
b.
Anas,
Abu@
H®an^fa,
Ebn
H®anbal)
against
GÚaza@l^'s
own
opinions
and
expresses
strong
reservations
about
a
theology
based
on
faith
in
authority
(taql^d)
and
marked
by
polemics.
In
the
Eháya@÷
and
the
Monqedò
this
reserve
turns
into
outright
rejection
of
theology
as
a
reliable
way
to
certain
truth
and,
in
the
Elja@m,
into
a
warning
against
the
dangers
hidden
in
its
study.
GÚaza@l^,
however,
engaged
in
theological
polemics
himself,
and
his
more
systematic
writings
on
theology
were
preceded
by
his
polemical
treatise
against
the
Ba@tÂen^ya
sect
of
Nezáa@r^
Isma¿ilism.
This
refutation,
al-Mostazáher^
f^
fazµa@÷ehá
al-Ba@tÂen^ya
"The
abominations
of
the
sectarians"
(Goldziher,
1916),
was
named
after
the
caliph
al-Mostazáher
(acceded
to
the
caliphate
in
487/1094),
on
whose
order
GÚaza@l^
wrote
the
work
in
Baghdad.
Two
later
works
that
reflect
GÚaza@l^'s
intellectual
struggle
with
the
principle
of
hermeneutics
(ta÷w^l),
upheld
by
the
authoritative
teaching
(ta¿l^m)
of
the
Ba@tÂen^ya,
are
the
al-QestÂa@s
al-mostaq^m
"The
correct
balance"
(tr.
McCarthy,
pp.
287-332)
and
the
Faysáal
al-tafreqa
bayna'l-Esla@m
wa'l-zandaqa
"The
arbiter
between
Islam
and
heresy"
(tr.
McCarthy,
pp.
145-74),
the
latter
of
which
includes
an
innovative
argument
for
the
tolerance
of
heterodox
groups
within
the
Islamic
community
(Griffel,
pp.
34-42).
The
authenticity
of
GÚaza@l^'s
al-Radd
al-jam^l
¿ala'l-ela@h^yat
¿Èsa@
sáar^há
al-Enj^l
"The
excellent
refutation
of
the
divinity
of
Jesus
from
the
clear
evidence
of
the
Gospel"
is
maintained
by
Louis
Massignon
(pp.
491-536),
although
questioned
by
others
(Lazarus-Yafeh,
pp.
458-87).
GÚaza@l^'s
most
important
work,
the
monumental
Eháya@÷
¿olu@m
al-d^n,
written
during
his
years
of
travel
and
retreat
between
his
teaching
at
Baghdad
and
N^æa@pu@r,
represents
a
moderate
form
of
Sufism,
one
stressing
religious
knowledge
and
righteous
action
(cf.
the
analysis
of
Bousquet).
The
work
as
a
whole
reflects
GÚaza@l^'s
self-perception
as
one
chosen
to
revive
religion,
being
a
complete
guide
to
Islamic
piety,
divided
into
four
volumes
of
ten
"books"
each
(¿eba@da@t
"religious
duties,"
¿a@da@t
"social
customs,"
mohleka@t
"faults
of
character,"
and
monj^ya@t
"virtues").
Convinced
that
in
his
time
the
scholars
of
law
and
religion
(¿olama@÷)
had
debased
religious
knowledge,
making
it
a
business
of
this-worldly
gain,
GÚaza@l^
tried
to
revive
a
true
religiosity
that,
in
his
view,
had
become
moribund.
To
this
end
he
wrote
his
work
in
an
eloquent
didactic
style,
addressing
himself
to
the
common
people
yet
also
adding
insights
for
the
mystically
attuned
elite.
A
teacher
and
preacher
more
than
an
original
thinker,
he
intended,
through
clarity
of
thought
rather
than
brilliance
of
diction,
to
convert
others
to
following
the
path
to
God.
Though
GÚaza@l^
used
Abu@
T®a@leb
Makk^'s
(d.
386/996)
Qu@t
al-qolu@b
and
Qoæayr^'s
Resa@la
as
major
sources,
and
even
copied
pages
of
Makk^'s
work
wholesale,
the
work
is
an
independent
and
freshly
organized
compendium
drawn
from
his
broad
knowledge
of
the
Islamic
sciences.
After
the
completion
of
his
monumental
work
GÚaza@l^
wrote
a
short
summary
of
it,
entitled
Keta@b
al-arba¿^n
"The
book
of
the
forty,"
compiled
the
al-Maqsáad
al-asna@
f^
asma@÷
Alla@h
al-háosna@
"The
noblest
of
aims,"
an
exposition
of
the
most
beautiful
names
of
God
(al-asma@÷
al-háosna@)
and
answered
the
critics
of
the
Eháya@÷
with
his
al-Emla@÷
¿ala@
moækel
al-Eháya@÷
(printed
in
its
margin).
Among
the
smaller
treatises,
written
after
the
Eháya@÷,
mention
may
be
made
of
the
eschatological
tract,
al-Dorra
al-fa@kòera
f^
kaæf
¿olu@m
al-a@kòera.
Finally,
an
extensive
commentary
on
the
Eháya@÷
(Etháa@f
al-sa@dat
al-mottaq^n)
was
compiled
by
Moháammad
b.
Moháammad
Zab^d^,
known
as
Sayyed
Mortazµa@
(d.
1205/1791),
while
in
modern
times
dozens
of
the
"books"
of
GÚaza@l^'s
magnum
opus
have
been
translated
into
Western
languages
(such
as,
e.g.
the
annotated
translation
of
Gramlich).
The
scholarly
analysis
of
works
of
GÚaza@l^,
and
his
Sufi
writings
in
particular,
has
been
controversial
for
about
a
century
(Macdonald,
pp.
71-132;
Carra
de
Vaux;
Asín
Palacios,
1931-41;
Wensinck;
Obermann;
Jabre;
Watt,
1963;
Laoust;
Lazarus-Yafeh)
because
of
the
predominant
emphasis
on
GÚaza@l^
as
an
orthodox
rationalist.
In
addition,
his
monumental
Eháya@÷,
which
deals
with
Sufi
topics
for
only
half
the
work,
has
overshadowed
a
number
of
smaller
Sufi
treatises
GÚaza@l^
authored
especially
in
the
later
stages
of
his
life.
The
crux
of
the
question
about
the
extent
to
which
GÚaza@l^
may
be
interpreted
as
a
mystical
philosopher
is
centered
on
his
Meæka@t
al-anwa@r
"Niche
of
lights."
The
work
was
first
studied
and
translated
by
William
H.
T.
Gairdner
(1924;
1914,
pp.
121-53),
whose
attribution
and
analyses
were
challenged
by
W.
Montgomery
Watt
(pp.
5-22),
and
¿Abd-al-Ra@háma@n
Badaw^
(pp.
193-98)
added
the
observation
in
1948
that
a
collective
manuscript
of
GÚaza@l^'s
writings,
copied
only
four
years
after
his
death
(MS
ehit
Ali
1712),
included
the
entire
Meæka@t
al-anwa@r.
In
a
recent
study,
Hermann
Landolt
(pp.
19-72)
assembled
a
series
of
arguments
in
favor
of
the
authenticity
of
the
work
and
of
the
consistency
of
its
ideas
with
esoteric
passages
of
the
Eháya@÷.
More
textual
studies
on
other
small
Sufi
treatises
of
GÚaza@l^,
in
comparison
with
the
Eháya@÷,
are
needed
to
clarify
our
understanding
of
GÚaza@l^'s
mystical
philosophy.
Such
small
treatises
of
disputed
authenticity
are
the
Menha@j
al-¿a@bed^n
(Bouyges
and
Allard,
pp.
82-84),
assumed
to
have
been
his
last
work,
and
the
al-Mazµnu@n
(Cairo,
1303/1885-86;
Bouyges
and
Allard,
pp.
51-56),
addressed
to
his
brother
Ahámad.
Meticulous
manuscript
study
is
also
required
to
support
the
authenticity
of
the
Resa@la
al-ladon^ya
(M.
Smith,
1938,
pp.
177-200,
353-74;
idem,
1944,
p.
212),
which
is
frequently
held
to
be
a
work
of
Ebn
¿Arab^
(Bouyges
and
Allard,
pp.
124-25).
Because
the
vast
majority
of
GÚaza@l^'s
writings
are
compiled
in
Arabic,
little
scholarly
attention
is
commonly
given
to
the
books
he
wrote
in
Persian.
His
K^m^a@-ye
sa¿a@dat
"Alchemy
of
happiness"
is
a
Persian
synopsis
of
his
Eháya@÷
for
his
disciples,
rather
than
its
popularized
version
(Pretzl,
p.
17).
Completed
shortly
before
499/1106
(Bouyges
and
Allard,
p.
60),
the
work
is
a
well-organized
religious
ethics
(de
Fouchecour,
pp.
223-52),
enriched
by
mystical
reflections
on
the
heart
(qalb)
that
is
"alchemically"
purified
and
empowered
to
reach
God.
Succinctly
put,
the
K^m^a@-ye
sa¿a@dat
finds
the
solution
of
GÚaza@l^'s
own
original
crisis
concerning
the
human
heart,
held
in
the
physical
body,
though
fashioned
from
the
substance
of
angels,
as
being
in
the
image
of
God.
As
the
organ
of
intimate
union
with
God
and
the
locus
of
the
inborn
nature
(fetára),
it
is
the
seat
of
the
knowledge
and
love
of
God
as
well
as
the
source
of
moral
action.
In
his
brief
refutation
of
the
eba@há^ya
(Islamic
freethinkers)
written
in
Persian
in
499/1106,
GÚaza@l^
tries
to
safeguard
his
moderate
mystical
synthesis
by
attacking
antinomian
Sufi
extremism
(ed.
Pretzl).
It
may
also
be
noted
that
GÚaza@l^'s
short
Ayyoha'l-walad
"Oh
child"
(cf.
Hammer-Purgstall),
written
after
the
Eháya@÷,
was
originally
composed
in
Persian,
and
only
later
translated
into
Arabic
under
the
title
Kòola@sáat
al-tasáa@n^f
(Bouyges
and
Allard,
pp.
60-61,
97-98).
Another
Persian
work
is
the
Nasá^háat
al-molu@k
"Counsel
for
kings"
(tr.
into
Arabic
well
after
GÚaza@l^'s
death
by
Abu'l-H®asan
¿Al^
b.
Moba@rak
b.
Mawhu@b
Erb^l^
as
al-Tebr
al-masbu@k;
Meier,
pp.
395-408),
which
was
compiled
about
503/1109
and
belongs
to
the
literary
genre
of
"mirrors
for
princes."
Weaving
together
anecdotes
of
Sasanian
court
literature
and
stories
of
Muslim
lore,
the
book
is
written
in
a
pleasing
Persian
and
divided
into
two
parts,
a
theological
part,
explaining
the
beliefs
and
principles
on
which
a
ruler
should
act,
and
an
ethical
part,
including
counsels
and
maxims
according
to
which
a
ruler
should
administer
his
charge.
It
is
generally
assumed
that
the
Nasá^háat
al-molu@k
was
written
for
the
Saljuq
sultan
Moháammad
b.
Malekæa@h,
whose
rule
(498-511/1104-17)
followed
that
of
his
brother
Bark^a@roq
(Meier,
p.
395;
Ga@za@l^,
tr.
Bagley,
pp.
xvii-xviii).
In
her
dissertation
on
GÚaza@l^'s
letters
and
public
addresses,
however,
Dorothea
Krawulsky
argues
(pp.
20-25;
Laoust,
pp.
144-52)
that
the
book
was
addressed
to
the
Saljuq
sultan
Sanjar,
the
brother
of
his
two
predecessors,
who,
prior
to
his
own
rule
(513-52/1119-57),
administered
the
eastern
half
of
the
sultanate
in
his
two
brothers'
stead
as
"king
of
the
east"
(malek-e
maæreq).
Then
again,
attribution
of
the
second
part
of
the
Nasá^háat
al-molu@k
has
been
seriously
questioned
by
C.
H.
de
Fouchecour
(pp.
389-412),
while
Patricia
Crone
has
rejected
its
authenticity
altogether
(pp.
167-91).
The
compilation
of
the
small
treatise,
Serr
al-¿a@lamayn
"The
secret
of
the
two
worlds,"
also
in
the
genre
of
"mirror
for
princes"
though
written
in
Arabic,
is
linked
with
an
often
repeated,
yet
doubtful,
story
about
Ebn
Tu@mart
(d.
524/1130).
The
Mahdi
of
the
Almohads,
said
to
have
copied
the
book
while
studying
with
GÚaza@l^
in
Baghdad,
informed
the
master
about
the
public
burning
of
his
Eháya@÷
in
Cordoba
and
throughout
the
Almoravid
dominions
(Goldziher,
1903,
pp.
18-19).
Given
the
great
volume
of
GÚaza@l^'s
writings,
it
is
difficult
to
state
succinctly
the
significance
and
influence
of
his
life
and
work.
Nevertheless,
GÚaza@l^'s
own
confession,
in
the
opening
pages
of
his
Monqedò
(ed.
Jabre,
pp.
10-11),
of
a
thirst
to
free
his
inborn
intellectual
nature
(fetÂra)
from
the
blind
adherence
(taql^d)
to
inherited
religion
may
reflect
the
core
of
his
religious
quest
and
provide
the
key
to
his
work.
A
more
balanced
interpretation
of
Gaza@l^
may
well
lie
in
the
acknowledgment
that
his
manifold
ideas
evolved
over
a
long
career,
rather
than
in
the
insistence
upon
either
an
objectivist
or
subjectivist
approach
to
his
thought.
The
richness
of
GÚaza@l^'s
legacy
embraces
not
only
a
systematic
study
of
law
and
theology
that
rejects
both
legal
casuistry
and
scholastic
ingenuity,
yet
includes
a
polemical
fervor
against
philosophers
and
heretics,
but
it
also
embodies
a
high
standard
of
morals
and
a
deep
mystical
insight.
GÚaza@l^'s
influence
on
the
rationalist
philosophy
of
the
Islamic
West
as
well
as
on
the
scholasticism
of
Judaism
and
Christianity
in
medieval
southern
Europe
has
been
highlighted
for
centuries;
the
study
of
his
impact
on
the
inner
life
and
mystical
thought
of
the
Persian-speaking
world
has
barely
begun.
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(GERHARD
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