BOOK II

In the Name of Allah the Merciful, the Compassionate.

The Foundations of the Articles of Faith,

Containing Four Sections.

SECTION I

On the Exposition of the Creed of the Orthodox Community as
Embodied in the Two Words of the Shahadah which form One
of the Pillars of Islam.

We say-and our trust is in Allah-praise be to Allah the Creator, the Restorer, the Doer of whatever He wills, He Whose throne is glorious and Whose power, mighty, Who guides the elect to the orthodox path and the right way, Who grants them benefits once they affirm His unity by guarding the articles of faith from the obscurities of doubt and hesitation, Who leads them to imitate the way of His chosen Apostle and to follow the example of his most honoured Companions by directing their footsteps to the way of truth, Who reveals Himself to them In His Essence and in His works by His beautiful attributes which none perceive except he who inclines his ear in contemplation, Who makes known to them that He is one in His Essence without any associate, single (fard) without any compeer, eternal (samad) without any opposite, separate (munfarid) without any like. He is one, ancient (qadim)with nothing preceding Him, eternal (azali) without any. beginning, abiding in existence with none after Him, everlasting (abadi) without any end, subsisting without cessation, abiding without termination. He has not ceased and. He will not cease to be described by the epithets of majesty. At the end of time He will not be subject to dissolution and decay, but He is the first and the last, the external and the internal, and He knows all.

1. Transcendence (tanzih). We attest that He is not a body possessing form, nor a substance restricted and limited : He does not resemble other bodies either in limitation or in accepting division. He is not a substance and substances do not exist in Him; He is not an accident and accidents do not exist in Him. No, He resembles no entity and no entity resembles Him ; nothing is like Him and He is not like anything; measure does not bound Him and boundaries do not contain Him; directions do not surround Him and neither the earths nor the Heavens are on different sides of Him. Truly, He is seated on the throne after the manner in which He said and in the sense in which He willed -in a state of equilibrium removed from contact, fixity of location, stability, envelopment, and change. The throne does not support Him, but the throne and those who carry it are supported by the grace of Him power and are constrained by His hand. He is above the throne and above the Heavens and above everything to the limits of the earth with an aboveness which does not bring Him nearer to the throne and the Heavens, just as it does not make Him farther from the earth. No, He is highly exalted above the throne and the Heavens, just as He is highly exalted above the earth. Nevertheless, He is near to every entity and is nearer to a creature than his jugular vein; (Surah 50:15) and He witnesses everything since His nearness does not resemble the nearness off bodies, just as His essence does not resemble the essence of bodies. He does not exist in anything, just as nothing exists in, Him: He has too much exalted Himself that any place should contain Him, just as He has too much sanctified Himself that time should limit Him. No, He was before He had created time and place, and just as He was, He now is. He is distinct from His creatures through His attributes. There is not in His essence any other besides Him, nor in any other besides Him, His essence. He is far removed from change of state or of location. Events have no place in Him and mishaps do not befall Him. No, He does not cease in the epithets of His Majesty, to be far removed from decay, and in the attributes of His perfection He has no need of an increase in perfection. In His essence His existence is known by reason; His essence is seen with the eyes, a blessing from Him and a grace to the righteous in the life everlasting and a completion of bliss from Him through beholding His gracious face.

2. Life and Power. We witness that He is living, powerful, almighty and all-subduing; inadequacy and weakness befall Him not; slumber overtakes Him not nor sleep; dissolution does not prevail over Him nor death. He is Lord of the visible world and the invisible [80], and of power and might; His are dominion, subjugation, creation, and command ; the Heavens are rolled in His right hand and created things are subjugated in His hand. He is separate in creating and inventing; He is alone in bringing into existence and innovating. He created all creatures and their works, and decreed their sustenance and their lives; nothing decreed escapes His hand and the mutations of things are not beyond His power. The things which He decreed cannot be numbered and the things which He knows have no end.

3. Knowledge. We attest that He knows all things which can be known, grasping all that happens from the limits of earth to the highest heaven; not an atom's weight in the earth or in Heaven is beyond His knowledge. Yes, He knows the creeping of the black ant upon the solid rock in the darkest night, and He perceives the movement of the mote in the midst of the air. He knows the secrets and that which is more shrouded in secrecy than secrets; He has knowledge of the suggestions of the mind, of the movements of the thoughts, and of the concealed things of the inmost parts by a knowledge which is ancient from eternity and by which He has, not ceased to be described through the ages, not by a knowledge which renews itself and arises in His essence through experience.[1]

4. Will. We attest that He is the willer of all things that are, the ruler of all originated phenomena; there does not come into the visible or invisible world anything meagre or plenteous, small or great, good or evil, or any advantage or disadvantage, belief or unbelief, knowledge or ignorance, success or failure, increase or decrease, obedience or disobedience, except by His Will. What He wills is and what He does not will is not; there is not a glance of the eye nor a stray thought of the heart that is not subject to His will. He is the Creator, the Restorer, the Doer of whatsoever He wills. There is none that rescinds His command, none that supplements His decrees, none that dissuades a servant from disobeying Him, except by His help and mercy, and none has power to obey Him except by His Will. Even though mankind, jinn, angels, and devils were to unite to move the weight of a single atom in the world or to render it still, without His will they would fail. His will subsists in His essence as one of His attributes. He has not ceased to be described by it from eternity, willing, in His infinity, the existence of things at their appointed time which He has decreed. So they come into existence at their appointed times even as He has willed in His infinity without precedence of subsequence. They come to pass in accordance with His knowledge and will without variation or change. He does not direct things through arrangement of thought and awaiting the passage of lime, and therefore one thing does not distract Him from another.

5. Hearing and Sight. We attest that He is a hearer and a see-er. He hears and sees and no audible thing, however faint, is beyond His hearing, and no visible thing, however minute, is bidden from His sight. Distance does not prevent His hearing and darkness does not obstruct His seeing. He sees without eyes and hears without ears; just as He perceives without a brain, and seizes without a hand, and creates without an instrument, since His attributes do not resemble the attributes of created things, just as His essence does not resemble the essence of created things.

6. Speech. And we attest that He speaks,, commanding, forbidding, promising, and threatening, with a speech from eternity, ancient, and self-existing. .Unlike the speech of created things, it is not a sound which is caused through the passage of air or the friction of bodies; nor is it a letter which is enunciated through the movement of the lips and tongue. We, also attest that the Quran, the Bible, the Gospel, and the Psalms are His books revealed to His apostles; that the Quran is repeated by the tongue, written down in copies, and preserved in the heart, yet it is, nevertheless ancient, subsisting in the essence of Allah, not subject to division and separation through its transmission to the heart and (transcription on) leaves. We further attest that Moses heard the speech of Allah without sound and without word, just as the righteous see the essence of Allah in the hereafter, without substance or accident.

And since He has these qualities, He is living, knowing, willing, hearing, seeing and speaking through life, power, knowledge, will, hearing, sight, and speech, not solely through His essence.

7. Works. And we attest that there is no entity besides Him, except what originates by His action and proceeds from His justice, after the most beautiful and perfect and complete and just of ways. We attest that He is wise in His actions, just in f;is judgments; -His justice is not comparable with that of men, since tyranny is conceivable' in the case of the latter when he deals with the property of others than himself; but tyranny is inconceivable in the case of Allah, for He does not encounter any property of another besides Himself, so that his dealing with it might be tyrannous. Everything besides. Him, men and jinn, angels and devils, Heaven and earth, animals, plants, and inanimates, substance and accident, as well as things perceived and things felt, are all originated things which He created by His power from nothing and made from nought, since He existed in eternity by Himself and there was not along with Him any other. So He originated creation thereafter as a manifestation of his power and a realisation of that which had preceded of His will and that which existed in eternity of His word, not because He had any need or necessity for it.

We also attest that He is Magnanimous in creating and inventing and in imposing obligations(taklif), not doing it through necessity. We attest that He is gracious in beneficence and reform, though not through any need. Munificence and kindness, beneficence and grace are His, since He is able to bring upon His creatures all manner of torture and to shower upon them all kinds of pain and affliction. Even if He should do this, it would be justice on His part, it would not be vile, it would not be tyrannous. He rewards His believing servants for their acts of obedience in the spirit of generosity and encouragement rather than according to their merit and desert. For He is under obligation to none and tyranny is inconceivable in Him. None possesses any claim against Him. His claim to obedience is obligatory and binding upon all creatures [81] because He made it obligatory upon them through the words of His prophets and not by reason alone. But He sent His apostles and showed their veracity through explicit miracles; and they conveyed His commands and prohibitions as well as His promises and threats. So it became obligatory upon all creatures to believe in what they brought.

The Meaning of the Second Word of the
Witness (al-shahadah)

The second word of the witness is that which testifies that the apostleship belongs to the Apostle, and that Allah sent the unlettered (ummi) Qurashite Prophet Muhammad, as an apostle to all the Arabs and the non-Arabs, to the jinn and men. And by his law He abrogated the other laws, except such of them as He confirmed. And He gave him precedence over all other prophets and made Him Lord of mankind, and declared incomplete any profession of faith which attests to unity, i.e. There is no god but Allah, unless it is followed by the witness to the Apostle, namely, Muhammad is the Apostle of Allah, And he made belief in him, in all the things which he narrated concerning the affairs of this world and the hereafter, obligatory upon all creation. And He will not accept the belief of any creature until he believes in that which the Prophet narrated concerning the things after^- death, of which the first is the question of Munkar and Nakir. These are two awful and terrible beings who will make the dead one sit up in the grave, both soul and body; they will ask him about the unity of Allah and about the apostleship, saying, Who is the Lord, and what is the religion, and who is thy prophet?[2] They are the two inquisitors of the grave and their. questions comprise the first examination after death.

Again, man should believe that the punishment of the grave is real and that His judgment of the body and soul is just and in accordance with His will. And he should believe in the balance with the two scales and the tongue-the magnitude of which is like the stages of the Heavens and the earth; in it the deeds are weighed by the power of Allah, even to the weight of the mote and the mustard seed, in order to establish exact justice. The records of the good deeds will be placed in a good manner in the scale of light, and then the balance will be weighed down by them according to the measure of their favour in the sight of Allah and by His grace, while the records of the evil deeds will be cast in a vile manner in the scale of darkness, and they will be light in the balance through the justice of Allah. He should believe also that the bridge (al-sirat,) is real; it is a bridge stretched over Hell, sharper than the edge of the sword and finer than a hair. The feet of the unbelievers slip on it, according to the decree of Allah, and they fall into the Fire; but the feet of the believers stand firm upon it, by the grace of Allah, and so they pass into everlasting life. And he should believe in the frequented tank (hawd) the tank of Muhammad, from which the believers will drink before entering Paradise and after [821 crossing the bridge. Whoever drinks a single draught from it will never thirst again. Its width is the distance of one months journey; its waters are whiter than milk and sweeter than honey. Around it are ewers in number like the stars of heaven,[3] and into it flow two canals from al-Kawthar.[4] And ht should believe in the judgment and the distinction. Between men in it, that some will be closely questioned that some will be treated with leniency and that other; will enter Paradise without questioning-these arc. Allah's favourites (al-muqarrabun). Allah will ash whomsoever He will of the prophets concerning the carrying of His message, and whomsoever of the unbelievers concerning their rejection of the apostles;[5] and He will ask the innovators concerning the law and the Muslims concerning their works. And he^, should believe that the monotheists will be released from Hell-fire after vengeance has been taken on them; so that there will not remain in Hell a single monotheist. And he should believe in the intercession of the prophets, of the learned, and of the martyrs-each according to his dignity and rank before Allah. And he who remains of the believers and has no intercession will be released through the grace of Allah. Therefore not a single believer will abide in Hell forever; whosoever has in his heart the weight of an atom of belief will be brought out from there. And he should acknowledge the excellence of the Companions [83] and their different ranks, and that the most excellent of mankind, after the Prophet, is Abu-Bakr, and then Umar, and then Uthman, and then Ali. And he should think well of all the Companions and praise them, just as Allah and His Apostle praised them.

All this was handed down in traditions from the Prophet and from his Companions. Therefore he who subscribes to all this and believes in it without doubting will be of the people of truth and the Law, thus separating himself from the followers of error and heresy.

So we ask Allah to perfect our faith and make us steadfast in it. We ask this, through His mercy, for ourselves and for all the Muslims throughout the world. Truly 'He is the most merciful. And may the blessing of Allah be upon our master[6] Muhammad and upon very chosen servant.

SECTION II

On the Introduction to Religious Instruction and the
Stages of Belief.

You should know that what we have already stated under the Exposition of the Creed[7] should be presented to the child in his early years in order that he may commit it to memory; its meaning will continue to be unfolded to him little by little as he grows older. The first step is to commit it to memory, after which comes understanding, then belief, then certainty and acceptance, all of which obtain in the child without proof. For Allah showed His grace to man by preparing his heart from the beginning for belief without the necessity of any argument or proof. How can this be denied when all the articles of faith of the common folk are based on pure instruction (talqin) and simple acceptance on authority (taqlid)? True, a belief which results from simple acceptance of authority may not be free of some weakness at the beginning, in that it can be shaken and impaired by its opposite whenever that is mentioned. It should, therefore, be strengthened and confirmed in the heart of the child and the layman until it becomes well established and unshakeable: But the way to strengthen and confirm it does not lie in learning the art of argumentation and speculation. It is found in the reading and exposition of the Quran, in the study of the traditions and their meaning, and in the performance of religious duties and acts of worship. Consequently a child's belief continues to increase in strength through what falls on his ears of the proofs and arguments of the Quran, through what reaches him of the illustrations of tradition and their merits, through what shines on him of the lights of the acts of Worship and the fulfillment of the duties thereof, and finally by means of what comes to him from watching the righteous, sitting in their company, and listening to their words, as well as from observing their mark and manner in obeying Allah, fearing Him, and humbling themselves before Him. Instruction will then be like the sowing of the seed in the heart, while these actions will serve to water and tend the seed until it grows up and becomes strong and develops into a good and strong tree the roots of which are well grounded in the earth, while the branches reach up into the sky.

The child should also be guarded with utmost care against argumentation and speculation, because what argumentation impairs is greater than what it repairs, and what it corrupts is great than what it sets aright. In fact, the practice of strengthening the belief of the child through argumentation is like striking a tree with an iron mallet in the hope of strengthening it. Breaking its limbs in this way, however, will destroy it or, more likely, impair its growth. Seeing should, in this case, suffice. Compare then the creed of the righteous and pious among the common folk with that of the speculators and those given to argumentation and you will find that the belief of the commoner is as firm as the lofty mountain which is moved neither by storm nor; lightning, while the creed of the speculator who guards his belief with the syllogisms of controversy is like a thread hanging in the air, blown to and fro by the winds. This is true of all except those who have heard the proof of belief and have accepted it on authority, just as they have taken hold of belief itself and accepted it on authority, since there is no difference in accepting things on authority between the proof and the thing proved. Thus learning the proof is one thing; arriving at it through independent thinking is another.

But if the child were brought up on this doctrine And should then pursue a worldly activity in order to earn his livelihood, he might not go any farther, though he would, in the opinion of the people of the truth, be saved in the hereafter, since the Law did not require of the barbarous Arabs anything more than a verbal acceptance of the literal meaning of these articles of faith. But study and inquiry, as well as undertaking the working out of proofs, were not required of them at all [84]. But if he should wish to be one of the travelers along the path of the hereafter and be fortunate therein, so that he could continue to act (according to his knowledge), holding fast to piety, restraining his soul from lust, (Quran; 79:40) and practising self-discipline and self mortification, there would be opened for him avenues of guidance which would reveal to him the realities of this doctrine throught a divine light cast into his heart by self-mortification (mujahadah), in fulfillment of the promise of Allah whom He said, And whoso striveth for us, in Our ways We will guide them; for Allah is assuredly with those who do right. (Quran; 29:69) This is, in truth, the precious pearl which is the ultimate goal of the belief of the saints and the favourites of Allah. The secret which rested in the bosom of Abu-Bakr al-Siddiq and by which he excelled all others referred to this pearl. The revelation of this secret (sirr), nay, these secrets, has different stages, depending upon the degree of self-mortification and upon the degree in which the inner self (al-batin) is clean and free of things other than Allah, as well as upon the obtaining of guidance by means of the light of faith (yaqin).This is just like the differences which exist among men in the comprehension of the mysteries of medicine, jurisprudence and the other sciences, since their differences vary with their diligence and with their native endowment (fitrah) in brilliance and prudence. Just as the former variations are not limited, so are the latter not limited.

(A case). If you say that the study of argumentation and scholastic theology (kalam) is blameworthy, like astrology, or that it is permissible (mubah) or commendable (mandub), then, you should know that in this particular respect men go to excess and exaggeration on both sides: some say that it is an innovation and therefore unlawful and that, excluding the sin of polytheism (shirk), it is. better for the servant to face his Allah guilty of every offence except that of scholasticism; others say that it is an obligation and an ordinance either of the kifayah or the ayn type, that it is the best form of work and the highest kind of oblation, and that it is the verification of theology and the safeguard of the religion of Allah. Among those who hold it unlawful are Shafi`i, Malik, Ahmad ibn Hanbal, Sufyan [al-Thawri] and all the traditionists among the Fathers.

Ibn-`Abd-al-A`la[8] once said, On the day al-Shafii was debating with Hafs al-Fard,[9] who was one of the Mutazilite theologians, I heard him say, Excluding the sin of polytheism it is better for the slave to face his Allah guilty of every offence than to stand before Him with [even a] little scholasticism. I have also heard Hafs say things which I cannot repeat. Ibn-`Abd-al-A`la reported also that al-Shafii said, I have discovered among the scholastic theologians things which I never expected to find. Excepting the sin of polytheism, it is better for the servant to disobey all the commandments of Allah than to address himself to scholastic theology.

Al-Karabisi related that al-Shafii was once asked about something scholastic and was consequently infuriated and said, Ask Hafs al-Fard and his cohorts about this-may Allah dishonour them. When al-Shafii was taken sick, Hafs came in to him and said, Who am I ? Al-Shafii replied, You are Hafs al-Fard-may Allah neither keep nor prosper you until you repent of your sins. Said al-Shafii again, If men but knew what predilections lurk in scholastic theology they would have run away from it as they would run away from a lion. And again, Whenever I hear a man say that the name is the thing named, I testify that he is a scholastic theologian and has no religion.

Al-Za'farani[10] related that al-Shafi'i once said, My judgment concerning the scholastic theologians is that they should be beaten with palm branches and carried in that condition round among the tribes and clans. This, it is said, is the penalty of those who discard the Quran and the traditions and address themselves to scholastic theology.

Ahmad ibn-Hanbal said, A scholastic theologian never succeeds. You can hardly find anyone who, having dabbled in scholastic theology, is without unsoundness in his heart. He was so strong in its condemnation that he ostracised al-Harith al-Muhasibi,[11]in spite of the latters asceticism and godliness, because he composed a work on the refutation of heresy,[12] telling him, Woe unto you. Do you not first state their heretical beliefs and then answer them, thereby compelling men to study these heresies and to ponder over these dubiosities, all of which will draw them into speculation and controversy. Ahmad ibn-Hanbal also said, The scholastic theologians are heretics (sing. zindiq).

(Speaking of the scholastic theologian) Malik said Have you seen how, when one of stronger argument confronts him he will discard his religion for a new one every day? In other words, the position of the debaters is (constantly) changing. Malik also said, The testimony of sectarians and heretics is not permissible. In interpreting this, some of his friends said that he meant by sectarians (ahl al-ahwa') the scholastic theologians, no matter to what school of thought they might belong.

Abu-Yusuf said, He who seeks knowledge through speculation will become a heretic (zindiq). Al-Hasan [al-Basri] said, Argue not with sectarians and associate with them not, nor hearken unto them.

Thus the traditionists among the Fathers have been unanimous (in their condemnation of scholastic theology). The many strictures which came down to us from them are innumerable, They have said that the companions refrained from scholastic theology only because of their knowledge of the evils it would breed, although they were better informed and more eloquent phrase-makers than anyone else. For this reason the Prophet said, The hairsplitters ^-are doomed ; they are doomed to destruction. By this he meant those who are extravagant in investigation and research. [The traditionists among the Fathers] also protested that if [scholastic theology] were an integral part of religion the Apostle of Allah would have commanded [his Companions to address themselves to] it, and would have taught [them] its ways. He also would have praised it and commended its protagonists [85]. He thus taught them abstersion (istinja')[13] and urged them to study the law of inheritance ('ilm al fara'id)[14] and commended [its teachers]. On the other hand he forbade them to speculate on divine decrees saying, Refrain from speculation on the decrees of Allah, and the Companions continued to refrain from such speculations. To add to what the teacher set forth is disloyal and unfair; the Companions are our teachers and our example, and we are their followers and disciples.

The other group protested that the dangers in speculation are such terms as essence (jawhar) and accident ('arad) and the other strange terms with which the Companions were not familiar. But the matter is not difficult to explain, because there is not a single branch of knowledge in which new terms have not been introduced for the sake of conveying meanings, as for example, the science of tradition, the science of interpretation, and the science of jurisprudence. Were these people to encounter terms such as refutation (naqd), invalidation (kasr), composition (tarkib), deduction(tadiyah), and false collocation (fasadal-wad'), as well as the other questions which are adduced by analogy (qiyas), they would not comprehend them. Therefore the introduction of new terms to signify a definite meaning is just as legitimate as inventing vessels of new shape and form for use in permissible things. If it is the meaning of these terms which is dangerous, we do not mean to attain through them anything except the knowledge of the proofs for the creation of the universe, the unity of the Creator, and (the nature of) His attributes as they have come down to us in the Law. Since when, then, has the knowledge of Allah by proof been unlawful ? But if it is sectarianism, fanaticism, enmity, hatred, and all that speculation and controversy breed which are meant and intended, then these are unlawful and should be guarded against and avoided, just as pride, conceit, hypocrisy, and the desire for power which the sciences of tradition, interpretation, and jurisprudence breed are unlawful and should be guarded against and avoided. Nevertheless, the fact that a branch of knowledge may lead to [these evils] should not prevent one from seeking that knowledge. For how could the mention of a piece of evidence and the desire to learn and investigate it be forbidden when Allah said, Say : Give your proof if ye speak the truth. (2:105)[15] And again ...that he who would perish might perish by clear proof, and he who would live might live by clear proof. (8:44) And again, Have ye any authority for this? (cf. 10:69) in other words [Have ye any] evidence or proof [for this?]. And again, Say: Peremptory evidence is Allah's. (10:110) And again, Hast thou not considered him who disputed with Abraham about his Lord, because Allah had given him the kingdom? When Abraham said, My Lord is He who giveth life and death, he said, It is I who give life and death, Abraham said, Since Allah bringeth the sun from the East, do thou then bring it from the West. The infidel was confounded, for Allah guideth not the evildoers. (2:60) In this instance Allah mentioned with commendation the controversy between Abraham and his adversary and how Abraham debated with the adversary and silenced him. Allah also said, This is our argument with which we furnished Abraham against his people. (6:83) And again, They said, 'O Noah! Already hast thou disputed with us, and increased our disputation. (11:34) Again, in the story of Pharaoh, Allah said, Said Pharaoh, Who then is the Lord of the Worlds? to the words What if I show thee that which shall be a proof [of my mission]? (26: 22-29)[16] In short the Quran, from beginning to end, is an argument with the unbelievers. The greatest proof of theologians for the unity of Allah is the word of Allah when He said, Had there been in either [Heaven or earth] gods besides Allah, both would have surely gone to ruin, (21:22) Their greatest proof for the prophecy is, And if ye be in doubt as to that which we have sent down to our servant, then produce a surah like it.(2:21) Their greatest proof for the resurrection is, Say: He shall give life to them who first gave them being. (36:79)

Thus the apostle did not cease to debate with the unbelievers and dispute with them. Allah said, Dispute with them in the kindest manner. (16:126) The Companions, too, used to debate and dispute with the unbelievers, but only in the time of need. At the time of the Companions the need for disputation was small. The first to establish the precedence of summoning innovators back to truth, by means of debate and argument was 'Ali ibn-abi-Talib when he dispatched ibn-' Abbas to the Kharijites. Ibn-`Abbas argued with them saying, Would you rebel against your imam? But they replied, He has fought, but did not capture any prisoners or booty. Ibn-`Abbas explained to them that prisoners and booty are taken only in war against unbelievers, adding, Would any of you, if Aisha had been taken captive on the Day of the Camel[17] and had fallen to his lot, have deemed it lawful to deal with her as he would have dealt with his own property [and forgot] that she was, according to the express word of the Quran, your mother?[18] They answered No, and- consequently two thousand of them surrendered.[19]

It was also related that al-Hasan (al-Basari) once debated with a Qadarite[20]with the result that the latter renounced his error. Similarly, `Ali ibn-abi-Talib once debated with a Qadarite. It is also related that 'Abdullah ibn-Mas`ud debated with Yazid ibn 'Amirah[21] on the subject of belief. Said 'AbdullAh [ibn Mas'ud], If I say that I am a believer it will be like saying that I am in Paradise. Thereupon Yazid ibn 'Amirah said to him, O Companion of the Apostle of Allah, what is belief except to believe in Allah, His angels, books and aspostles, as well as in resurrection and the balance [of the day of the Judgement], and to perform prayer, observe the fast, and pay alms. Yet we have trespasses which, if we but knew that they will be forgiven us, we would know that we will be of the people of Paradise. For this reason we say that we are believers,but we do not say that we are of the people of Paradise. Ibn-Mas`ud replied, By Allah, you have said the truth ; this is a . mistake on my part. Thus it should be said that [the Companions] addressed themselves little to [speculation], and this they did briefly and only in time of need. They did not go into it [as a subject] to be written about or taught, nor did they take it up as a vocation. It is then said that they addressed themselves to it little because the need was small, since no heresy had appeared at that time. They addressed themselves to it briefly because their only purpose was to silence the adversary and compel him to admit his error; they aimed at revealing the truth and removing dubiosities. Yet whenever the confusion of the adversary persisted or his insistence on error continued, they had to prolong their argument, never reckoning, as it were, the need with weight or [86] measure once they had embarked on their [argument]. Their not applying themselves to teaching and writing about it is not unlike their custom with regard to jurisprudence, interpretation, and tradition. Therefore, if it is permissible to compose books on jurisprudence and to work out rare hypothetical cases (suwar) which seldom arise, either as a preparation for the time of need, or simply to sharpen the wits, it is also permissible for us to classify the methods of disputation in preparation for the time with dubiosities flare up or an innovator runs loose ; or simply to sharpen the wits or have the argument ready so that when needed it will be within reach of all just as the preparation of armaments for war before the day of battle.

This is practically all that can be said on behalf of the two groups, [the proponents and the opponents of speculation]. If you ask me what I think of this, I will say that the truth of the matter is that those who condemn it absolutely and under all circumstances as well as those who praise it absolutely and unreservedly are wrong. The question should be more carefully analysed.

You should know, then, that first of all a thing, such as wine or carrion, may be pronounced unlawful from its very nature. What I mean by `its very nature' is that the cause of its being pronounced unlawful is a quality inherent in it : intoxication [in the case of wine] and putrefaction [in the case of carrion]. If we were asked concerning these two things, we would not hesitate to say that they were absolutely unlawful, and would in no way think of allowing carrion to be eaten in time of need, nor ever think off permitting the drinking of wine when a person chokes over a mouthful of food and finds nothing with which to swallow it besides wine.

In the second place a thing may be pronounced unlawful for some other reason, such as underselling your Muslim brother during the period of option (khiyar),[22] trading during the call to prayer, or eating earth which is pronounced unlawful because of its harmful effect. Such things are divided into those which are harmful both in small and large quantities and are therefore pronounced unlawful, like, for example, poison which is fatal whether in small or large quantity ; and those which are harmful only when taken in excess like, for example, honey, which when taken in excess is harmful to the feverish patient. The same is true of eating earth. Therefore, in pronouncing wine absolutely unlawful, only the most general cases were taken into consideration. In the event that something new arises, it will be well to consider the attending circumstances. Consequently it is better and safer to analyse each case [and treat it on its own merits].

Were turn now to the science of scholastic theology (`ilm al-kalam) to say that it has advantages and disadvantages, usefulness and harm. With regard to its usefulness, whenever it is useful it is either lawful, or commendable, or obligatory, as the occasion demands. As to its harm, whenever it is harmful it is unlawful. Its harm lies in raising doubts and undermining the articles of faith by moving them out from the realm of certitude and determination. These things are lost at the beginning and their restoration by means of proof is doubtful; furthermore it varies with the individual.

Such then is ,its harm in the orthodox faith. Yet it has another harmful influence which manifests itself in confirming the belief of the heretics in their heresies and establishing them in their hearts so that their claims increase and their insistence on them becomes more stubborn. The kind of them, however, results from the fanaticism which disputation enkindles. For this reason you find that the lay heretic can, through kindness, be easily dissuaded from his error in no: time. But if he were brought up in a town where disputation and fanaticism abound it will be impossible for both the ancients and the moderns to remove the heresy from his heart, their combined efforts, notwithstanding. On the contrary, passion, fanaticism, hatred of the adversaries of disputation and non-conformist groups prevail over his heart and prevent him from comprehending the truth so that even if he were told, Do you want Allah to remove for you the veil and to reveal to you through personal observation that the truth is on the side of your adversary? he would dislike it for fear that his adversary would be gladdened by it. This, then, is the chronic disease which has spread among men all over the land. It is a kind of corruption which is set in motion by the disputants through their fanaticism. This much for its harm.

As to its benefits [some] think that it is useful in revealing realities and knowing them as they really are. But how far from the truth this is, because the fulfilment of noble desire is not found in disputation. In fact the perplexity and confusion consequent on disputation surpass anything which it may reveal or unfold. If you were to hear that from a traditionist or a half scholar you might think that they have been moved to that by their ignorance, for men are the enemies of that of which they are ignorant. Take it, then, from one who has familiarised himself with disputation and, after a careful study and a thorough investigation of it in which he surpassed the extreme limits of its masters and went even further to study in great detail other cognate subjects, has come to dislike it, and has ascertained that the road to the realities of knowledge is closed from this direction. Disputation, as a matter of fact, will inevitably reveal, unfold, and clarify a few things, but this is very rare and only occurs in simple and clear matters which are readily understood even before any thorough study of the art of disputation. It has only one benefit : it preserves the creed for the common folk and safeguards it against the confusion of innovators by different kinds of argumentation. For the layman is swayed by the argument of the innovator although the argument may be false; and to confront a false position with another refutes it. People are expected to follow this creed which we have already mentioned because the Law has ordained it for the good of their temporal and spiritual lives and because the righteous Fathers agreed on it. The learned men are expected to watch over it for the common folk against the ambiguities of the innovators, just as the magistrates are expected to safeguard their property against the attacks of the oppressors and ravishers.

When both its harm and benefit are fully understood by man, he should be like the physician who is adept in the use of dangerous drugs, which he does not apply except to the right place and only at the time of need.

To explain further, the laymen and the common folk who are engaged in crafts and trades should be left alone in the integrity of their beliefs which [87] they have accepted when they have been instructed in the orthodox faith which we have already stated. To teach them disputation is decidedly harmful to them as it will perhaps arouse doubts in their minds which will shake their belief. Once these doubts are aroused it will not be possible to remedy their shaken belief.

As to the layman who believes in a certain innovation, he should be called back to the truth with kindness and tact and not with fanaticism : with soft words which are convincing to the soul and effective in the heart, words similar to those of the arguments of the Quran and the tradition, mixed with a little admonition and warning. This is much better than debate along the line set down by the scholastic theologians, since the layman, when he hears such arguments, thinks that they are a kind of technique in disputation which the disputant has learned in order to draw men to his belief. Consequently, if the layman fails to reply to these arguments he will assume that the scholastic theologians of his school are capable of refuting them. Disputation with both this man and the former is unlawful. Likewise it is unlawful to argue with one who has fallen victim to doubt, since doubt should be removed with kindness by admonition and understandable proofs free of excessive speculation and endless debate. In fact disputation is useful in only one case, namely, when the layman has been persuaded to believe in an innovation through one kind of argument, in which case it should be countered by the same kind of argument in order to recall the man to the truth. This, however, applies to him who, because of his fondness of disputation, is no longer satisfied with the ordinary admonitions and warnings, but has reached a stage where nothing will cure him except debate. Consequently it is permissible to argue with him. But in a country where heresy is rare and one rite (madhhab)[23] prevails, it should be sufficient to state the articles of faith which we have already mentioned, without any attempt to take up the question of proofs. The person should wait until something questionable arises before he takes up the question of proofs which he should present according to the need. If the heresy were a common one and a fear . existed that the children might be beguild with it, then there would be no harm in teaching them the equivalent of what we have included in the book entitled al-Risalah al-Qudisyah,[24] as a means for overcoming the influence of the. disputations of innovators if that influence should confront the children. This is a brief thing which we included in this book because of its brevity. If [the child] were bright and therefore became aware of a certain question or grew skeptical of something in his mind, then the feared disease has appeared and the malady has become visible. There will be no harm, then, to promote [the child] to the equivalent of that which we have included in the book entitled al-Iqtisad fi al-l`tiqad,[25] equalling about fifty folios and free from any departures from a discussion of the foundations of the articles of faith to the other investigations of the scholastic theologians. If this should convince [the child] then he might be let alone; but if this 'should fail to convince him, then the disease has become chronic, the malady rooted, and the epidemic widespread. Let, then, the physician be as kind and tactful as possible, and let him await the will of Allah until, through His grace, the truth shall be revealed to the child. Otherwise he will persist in his doubt and skepticism as long as it is so ordained.

The amount contained in that book and others of the same kind is that from which benefit can be expected. Books not confined to the same subject are of two kinds. The first comprises books which deal with subject other than the foundations of the articles of faith, such as those which discuss propensities (i`tima'dat),[26] transmutations (akwan),[27] and [the different kinds of] perceptions (idrakat),[28] or discoursing on sight (ru'yah) : whether or not it has an opposite which is called obstruction (man) or blindness, and that if this obstruction does exist, then it will be an obstruction [which prevents the eye] from [seeing] all invisible things, or [a proof which] verifies every visible thing that can be seen, as well as other misleading trivialities.

The second kind of these books contains a further expansion of the same arguments as applied to other subjects, together with several questions and answers -details which add nothing but confusion and perplexity to him who has not already been convinced by the previous amount. For there are certain things which become more obscure with dilation and expansion. Were one to say that the investigation into the rules of perceptions and propensities is useful for sharpening the mind which is the instrument of religion just as the sword is the instrument of war (jihad),[29] hence there is no harm in sharpening it, it will be like saying that playing chess, because it sharpens the mind, is a part of religion. This, however, is insane because the mind may be sharpened through the other sciences of that Law in which there is no fear of harm or injury.

By this you see how much of scholastic theology (kalam) is blameworthy and how much is praise worthy, the conditions wherein it is condemned and these wherein it is praised, as well as the persons who are benefited by it and the persons who are harmed. If you should then say that, since you acknowledge the need for it in refuting [the arguments of] the innovators, and since innovations have now risen and calamities spread, the need for it has become urgent, it is inevitable that undertaking this science should become a fard kifayah,[30] just as undertaking to safe guard property and other rights and fulfilling the duties of justice and government and the rest. And unless the learned men engage in spreading and teaching this science and in doing researches in it, it will not endure; and if it were completely abandoned, it would surely disappear; nor is there in human nature by itself a sufficient ability to cut through the dubiosities of innovators unless this subject be learnt and studied. Therefore there should be instruction in it, and its investigation is now one of the furud al kifayat,[31] contrary to what it was at the time of the Companions when the need for it was not urgent.

If you should say this, then know that the truth of the matter is that undoubtedly there should be, in every town, someone who would undertake to engage in this science and take it upon himself to refute the dubiosities of the innovators which have spread in that particular town. This undertaking is performed through education, but it is not wise 'to instruct the laity in it just as they are instructed in jurisprudence and interpretation. For this is like. drugs, and jurisprudence is like food : the harm of food is not dangerous but the harm of drugs is dangerous as we have already mentioned.

The learned men of this science should confine their instruction to men who have the three following traits : The first is devotion to knowledge and passion for it; for the- working man is prevented by his work from mastering the subject completely and from dispelling the doubts when they arise. [88] The second trait is sagacity, intelligence, and eloquence, because the stupid one does not benefit by his understanding and the dull one does not gain by his argument. On the contrary such a man is injured by disputation and should not expect any good from it. The third trait is that the man should by nature be good, religious, and pious; he should not be dominated by passions, because the sinful man would stray from religion at the least provocation. Passions would do away with all deterrents and remove the barrier which stands between him and worldly pleasures. He would not be keen on dispelling anything questionable, but rather would seize upon it to free himself from any obligation (taklif). The things which such a student will spoil would be greater than those which he would reform. When you know these divisions you would realize that, in disputation the praiseworthy argument is of the same kind as the arguments of the Quran : kind words which influence the hearts and convince the minds without going deeply into syllogisms and analyses which most people do not understand ; and whenever they understand them they consider them trickeries and artifices which their proponent has learnt in order to make things ambiguous. Should he be confronted by one of his professional colleagues he would resist him.

You will also know that al-Shafi`i and all the Imams[32] were forbidden from engaging in disputation and devoting themselves exclusively to it, because of the harm inherent in it which we have already pointed out. The reports of ibn-`Abbas' debate with the Kharijites and `Ali's debate concerning free will (qadar) [show that their disputation] was of the clear and intelligent kind, carried out at the time of need. Such disputation is praiseworthy under all conditions. Undoubtedly the need for disputation differs with the time ; therefore it is not unlikely that the rule which governs it should also differ. This then is the rule of the creed which Allah imposed on man and the method of defending and preserving it.

As to dispelling doubts, revealing truths, knowing things as they really are, and comprehending the mysteries (asrar) which the words of this creed signify, there is no way to attain any of them except through self mortification (mujahadah)[33] and the subduing of passions, through, seeking Allah wholeheartedly and persisting in thoughts which are free from the blemishes of disputation. They are a mercy from Allah which comes to those who expose themselves to its beneficence according to what Allah ordained to them and the extent to which they had exposed themselves to it as well as the capacity of their hearts and the degree of their purity. This is the sea the depth of which cannot be sounded and the waters of which cannot be traversed.

If you should say that this discourse implies that these sciences have external as well as internal meanings, that some of them are obvious and readily understood, while others are hidden and become evident through self-mortification, discipline, earnest desire, pure thinking and a heart (sirr) free from all worldly activities except those which are required, and conclude that such discourse is almost contrary to the Law since the Law does not have external and internal meanings, secret and manifest, but the external and the internal, the secret and the manifest, are in it all the same, then you should know that the division of these sciences into hidden and obvious is not denied by anyone of any insight but is denied by the ignorant who, having acquired some knowledge in their youth, did not advance any further and consequently failed to.. gain promotion to the lofty heights where lie the stations (maqamat) of the learned men and the saints.

This is evident from the testimony of the Law as the Prophet said,'.' Verily there is to the Quran an external meaning and an internal meaning, a scope and a point. 'Ali, pointing to his, breast, said, Verily herein lies abundant knowledge ; would that there were. some to [comprehend and] transmit it. The Prophet also said, We prophets were ordered to communicate with everyone according to his ability to understand. And again, No one has ever recited a tradition to a people which their minds have failed to grasp without being a temptation for them. Allah said, These similitudes do We set forth to men: and none understands them except those who know. (29:42) The Prophet said, Verily of knowledge is a branch which resembles a hidden thing; no one grasps it save those who know Allah. And again, If you only know what I know, you would laugh little and weep much.[34] If this had not been a secret which he was forbidden to divulge because of the inability of the minds to comprehend it, why then did he not explain it to them, especially since they would have certainly believed him if he had done so? In connexion with the interpretation of the words of Allah, It is Allah who hath created seven heavens and as many earths; the [divine] command cometh down among them. (65:12) ibn-'Abbas said, Were I to relate its interpretation, you would stone me-and according to another version,you would have said, 'He is an unbeliever Abu-Hurayrah said, I have received from the Apostle of Allah two things, one of which I have made public. Were I to divulge the other, this throat would be cut. The Prophet said, Abu-Bakr has excelled you not by excessive fasting and much prayer, but by a secret (sirr) which rested in his bosom. [89] No doubt this secret was connected with the foundations of religion and not removed from it. And whatever belonged to the foundations of religion could not have been hid from the other Companions through its outward form. Sahl al-Tustari[35] said, The learned man possesses three kinds of knowledge : exoteric (zahir) which he imparts to the followers of exoteric knowledge ; esoteric (batin) which he cannot reveal except to its own people ; and finally a knowledge which lies between him and His Allah and which he cannot reveal to anyone. One of the gnostics (sing. 'arif) said, To divulge the secret of Lordship (rububiyah) is [equivalent to] unbelief. Some one also said, Lordship has a secret, if revealed, prophecy will become obsolete ; prophecy has a secret, if divulged, knowledge will become useless; and the learned men of Allah have a secret, if disclosed, the law will become of no force. If he who had said this did not thereby mean the futility of prophecy as far as the feeble minded are concerned because of their inability to understand, then what he said is not true. Rather, that which is. true is free of contradiction. The perfect man is he whose knowledge does not destroy his piety, and the road to piety is through prophecy.

You may say, These verses and traditions may be subject to several interpretations. Show us, then, how their exoteric meaning differs from the esoteric. For if the exoteric is contradictory to the esoteric, it will destroy the Law, which is exactly the position of those who say that reality is contrary of the Law. This is sheer unbelief because the Law represents the exoteric and reality represents the esoteric. If the one is neither contradictory to, nor in disagreement with, the other, then both are identical. Therefore the division [of knowledge into obvious and hidden, exoteric and esoteric] is hereby destroyed and the Law will have no secret [meaning] which should not be divulged. Rather both the hidden and the obvious will be the same. If you should so inquire, then you should know that this question raises a grave issue and leads into the science of revelation (al-mukashafah) departing from the intent of the science of practical religion (al-muamalah) which is the purpose of these books. For the articles of faith which we have already mentioned come under the works of the heart which we are required to receive with acceptance and consent, by fixing the heart on them and adhering to them, not by endeavouring to comprehend their realities, since this was not required of all people. Were it not a part of practical religion we would not have mentioned it in this book, and were is not one of the outward works of the heart we would not have mentioned it in the first half of the book. Real [and complete] revelation is an attribute of the essence of the heart and its inward part. But if the discussion leads to the stirring up of doubt or the shadow of doubt concerning the contradiction of the exoteric to the esoteric, a brief word of explanation becomes necessary. For he who says that reality disagrees with the Law and the esoteric contradicts the exoteric is closer to unbelief than to belief. In fact, the secrets whose comprehension is peculiar to the favourites of Allah (al-muqarrabun) and the practice of which is limited to them and which they do not divulge to the masses may be divided into five categories:

The first is that the thing in itself is subtle and beyond the comprehension of most minds. Consequently its, comprehension is restricted to the elite who should not divulge it to those who are unable to grasp it lest, whenever their minds fail to comprehend it or to understand the concealed secrets of the spirit, it becomes a calamity to them. The Apostle himself refrained from explaining this part.[36] The minds fail to comprehend its reality and the imaginations to imagine its truth. But do dot think that this was not revealed to the Apostle of Allah, for he who does not know the spirit does not know himself, and he who does not know himself does not know his Allah. It is not unlikely that this was revealed to some of the saints and the learned men although they were not prophets; but they disciplined themselves in the etiquette of the Law and held their peace in the matters where the Apostle himself was silent. In fact there are in the attributes of Allah many a hidden thing which are beyond the comprehension and understanding of the crowds. Of these, the Apostle of Allah did not mention anything except those that are obvious to the minds, such as. knowledge and power and the like, which men understand in terms of something akin to them and then suppose that they performed the feat through their own knowledge and power, especially since they possess certain qualities which are called knowledge and power. Consequently they arrive at that by some manner of analogy. But if the Apostle mentioned some of the attributes of Allah to which men have nothing akin and which no not resemble, even remotely, anything they possess, they would not have understood them. Thus, the pleasure of coition, if mentioned to the child or to the impotent, will not be understood by them except in relation to the pleasure of eating which they comprehend. This understanding, however, will not be one of actual experience. Furthermore, the difference between Allah's knowledge and. power and human knowledge and power is greater than the difference between the pleasure of coition and the pleasure of eating. In short, man does not comprehend except himself and his own attributes which are present with him or were with him in the past. By comparison and analogy with these he understands the attributes of others. He will also realize that there is a difference between his attributes and those of Allah in nobleness and perfection. Therefore it is not within the power of men but to declare as belonging to Allah what has been declared as belonging to himself, such as action, knowledge, and power as well as other attributes, and to acknowledge that in the case of Allah they are more perfect and more noble. Most of his emphasis would, therefore, be [90] on his own attributes rather than on those of majesty which belong exclusively to Allah. For this reason the Prophet said, I shall not praise Thee as Thou hast praised Thyself. This does not mean the inability to express what I comprehend but rather an admission of the inability to comprehend the essence of the majesty of Allah. For this reason again someone said No one has truly known Allah except Allah Himself. Abu-Bakr al-Siddiq said, Praise be to Allah who bath not given men a way to know Him except through their inability to know Him.

Let us now, however, stop this kind of discussion and go back to the main purpose, namely that one of these categories comprises that which the minds fail to comprehend, such as the spirit (al-rah) and some of the attributes of Allah. Perhaps the Prophet^-referred to something of the same nature when be said, Verily Allah hath seventy veils of light. If He would remove them, the majesty,. of His face would consume every one whose eyes might happen to behold His glory.[37]

The second category of the hidden things which the prophets and the saints decline to mention or divulge comprises those things which are intelligible in themselves and the minds do not fail to grasp, but their mention is harmful to most hearers although it is no., harmful to the prophets and the saints. The secret of the decrees of Allah which the learned men were forbidden to divulge belongs to this part. Consequently it is not unlikely that certain truths may be harmful to some people just as the light of the sun is harmful to the eyes of bats and the rose perfume is harmful to black beetles. And how could this be deemed unlikely when we know that our saying that unbelief, adultery, sin, and evil exist all by the will of Allah, which in itself is true, but, nevertheless, has been harmful to many because it was taken

BEING

Revival of Religious Sciences

PREFACE

BOOK II

SECTION I