THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE ARTICLES OF FAITH

BEING

A Translation with Notes

OF

The Kit?b Qaw?‘id al-Aq?’id

OF

Al-Ghazz?li’s “Ihy?’ ‘Ul?m al-D?n

By

NABIH AMIN FARIS

American University of Beirut

Beirut, Lebanon

Book II

SH. MUHAMMAD ASHRAF

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THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE ARTICLES OF FAITH

NABIH AMIN FARIS

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To

the Memory of my father

AMIN FARIS

In Gratitude and Reverence

 

PREFACE

 

     The Ihy?Ul?m al-D?n of al-Ghazz?li is divided into four quarters (sing. rub‘). The first deals with the acts of worship (al-‘ib?’d?t), the second with the usages of life (al-mu‘?mal?t), the third with the destructive matters of life (al-muhlik?t), and the fourth with the saving matters of life (al-munajjiy?t). Each of these four quarters comprises ten books (sing. kit?b). The present work represents the second book in the first quarter. It deals with the foundations of the articles of faith and is, perhaps, the most important part of the first quarter.

     The texts utilized in the preparation of the present translation were the following: The first is the text printed at Kafr al-Zagh?ri in A.H. 1352 from the older Cairo edition of A.H. 1289. It is referred to in the notes as ‘C’. The second is that contained in the text of al-Sayyid al-Murtada al-Zab?di’s commentary on the Ihy?’ , known as the Ith?f al-S?dah al-Muttaqin bi-Sharh Ihy?Ul?m al-D?n, printed in ten volumes in Cairo A.H. 1311; it is referred to in the notes as SM (text). The third is the text which is reproduced in the margin of the same Ith?f al-S?dah; it is referred to in the notes as SM (margin). The fourth and, perhaps, the most important is the text contained in a four volume manuscript at the Princeton University Library (Philip K. Hitti, Nabih Amin Faris, and Butrus Abd-al-Malik, Descriptive Catalogue of the Garrett Collection of Arabic Manuscripts in the Princeton University Library, Princeton, 1938, No.1481). It probably dates from the late fifteenth century. This text, called ‘B’ in the notes, corresponds to SM (text), while ‘C’ corresponds to SM (margin).

     The first book of the first quarter, the well-known Kit?b al-‘Ilm, was published, under the title of The Book of Knowledge, by Sh. Muhammad Ashraf of Lahore 1962. Once again I am grateful to Sh.M. Ashraf for his continued interest in seeing as many of the books of the Ihy?, appear in English. And once again I wish to acknowledge my indebtedness to the three Princeton scholars: the late Edwin E. Conklin, the late Harold H. Bender, and Philip K. Hitti, and to the American Philosophical Society for the Promotion of Useful Knowledge in Philadelphia, without whose imaginative help neither The Book of knowledge nor the present work would have been done. May I also express my thanks to my students: Mr. Robert Hazo, Mr. John Dudley Woodberry, and Major Angus M. Mundy who read the manuscript and made several useful observations, and to Dr. John H. Patton, Professor of Religion, Park College, Parksville, Mo., for his careful examination of the manuscript and his valuable suggestions.

 

                                                                                              Nabih Amin Faris

American University of Beirut

October 31, 1962.

 

 

BOOK II

“In the Name of God the Merciful, the Compassionate”.

The Foundations of the Articles of Faith,

Containing Four Sections.

SECTION I

On the Exposition of the Creed of the Orthodox Community as

Embodied in the Two Words of the Shah?dah which form One

of the Pillars of Islam.

 

     We say-and our trust is in God-praise be to God the Creator, the Restorer, the Doer of whatever He wills, He Whose throne is glorious and Whose power, mighty, Who guides the elect to the orthodox path and the right way, Who grants them benefits once they affirm His unity by guarding the articles of faith from the obscurities of doubt and hesitation, Who leads them to imitate the way of His chosen Apostle and to follow the example of his most honoured Companions by directing their footsteps to the way of truth, Who reveals Himself to them in His Essence and in His works by His beautiful attributes which none perceive except he who inclines his ear in contemplation, Who makes known to them that He is one in His Essence without any associate, single (fard) without any compeer, eternal (?amad) without any opposite, separate (munfarid) without any like. He is one, ancient (qad?m) with nothing preceding Him, eternal (azali) without any beginning, abiding in existence with none after Him, everlasting (abadi) without any end, subsisting without cessation, abiding without termination. He has not ceased and He will not cease to be described by the epithets of majesty. At the end of time He will not be subject to dissolution and decay, but He is the first and the last, the external and the internal, and He knows all.

 

     1. Transcendence (tanz?h). We attest that He is not a body possessing form, nor a substance restricted and limited : He does not resemble other bodies either in limitation or in accepting division. He is not a substance and substances do not exist in Him; He is not an accident and accidents do not exist in Him. No, He resembles no entity and no entity resembles Him; nothing is like Him and He is not like anything; measure does not bound Him and boundaries do not contain Him; directions do not surround Him and neither the earths nor the Heavens are on different sides of Him. Truly, He is seated on the throne after the manner in which He said and in the sense in which He willed-in a state of equilibrium removed from contact, fixity of location, stability, envelopment, and change. The throne does not support Him, but the throne and those who carry it are supported by the grace of His power and are constrained by His hand. He is above the throne and above the Heavens and above everything to the limits of the earth with an aboveness which does not bring Him nearer to the throne and the Heavens, just as it does not make Him farther from the earth. No, He is highly exalted above the throne and the Heavens, just as He is highly exalted above the earth. Nevertheless, He is near to every entity and is “nearer to a creature than his jugular vein”; (s?rah L:15) and He witnesses everything since His nearness does not resemble the nearness of bodies, just as His essence does not resemble the essence of bodies. He does not exist in anything, just as nothing exists in Him: He has too much exalted Himself that any place should contain Him, just as He has too much sanctified Himself that time should limit Him. No, He was before He had created time and place, and just as He was, He now is. He is distinct from His creatures through His attributes. There is not in His essence any other besides Him, nor in any other besides Him, His essence. He is far removed from change of state or of location. Events have no place in Him and mishaps do not befall Him. No, He does not cease, in the epithets of His Majesty, to be far removed from decay, and in the attributes of His perfection He has no need of an increase in perfection. In His essence His existence is known by reason; His essence is seen with the eyes, a blessing from Him and a grace to the righteous in the life everlasting and a completion of bliss from Him through beholding His gracious face.

     2. Life and Power. We witness that He is living, powerful, almighty and all-subduing; inadequacy and weakness befall Him not; slumber overtakes Him not nor sleep; dissolution does not prevail over Him nor death. He is Lord of the visible world and the invisible, and of power and might; His are dominion, subjugation, creation, and command; the Heavens are rolled in His right hand and created things are subjugated in His hand. He is separate in creating and inventing; He is alone in bringing into existence and innovating. He created all creatures and their works, and decreed their sustenance and their lives; nothing decreed escapes His hand and the mutations of things are not beyond His power. The things which He decreed can not be numbered and the things which He knows have no end.

     3. Knowledge. We attest that He knows all things which can be known, grasping all that happens from the limits of earth to the highest heaven; not an atom's weight in the earth or in Heaven is beyond His knowledge. Yes, He knows the creeping of the black ant upon the solid rock in the darkest night, and He perceives the movement of the mote in the midst of the air. He knows the secrets and that which is more shrouded in secrecy than secrets; He has knowledge of the suggestions of the mind, of the movements of the thoughts, and of the concealed things of the inmost parts by a knowledge which is ancient from eternity and by which He has not ceased to be described through the ages, not by a knowledge which renews itself and arises in His essence through experience.1

     4. Will. We attest that He is the willer of all things that are, the ruler of all originated phenomena; there does not come into the visible or invisible world anything meagre or plenteous, small or great, good or evil, or any advantage or disadvantage, belief or unbelief, knowledge or ignorance, success or failure, increase or decrease, obedience or disobedience, except by His will. What He wills is and what He does not will is not; there is not a glance of the eye nor a stray thought of the heart that is not subject to His will. He is the Creator, the Restorer, the Doer of whatsoever He wills. There is none that rescinds His command, none that supplements His decrees, none that dissuades a servant from disobeying Him, except by His help and mercy, and none has power to obey Him except by His will. Even though mankind, jinn, angels, and devils were to unite to move the weight of a single atom in the world or to render it still, without His will they would fail. His will subsist in His essence as one of His attributes. He has not ceased to be described by it from eternity, willing, in His infinity, the existence of things at their appointed time which He has decreed. So they come into existence at their appointed times even as He has willed in His infinity without precedence of subsequence. They come to pass in accordance with His knowledge and will without variation or change. He does not direct things through arrangement of thought and awaiting the passage of time, and therefore one thing does not distract Him from another.

     5. Hearing and Sight. We attest that He is a hearer and a see-er. He hears and sees and no audible thing, however faint, is beyond His hearing, and no visible thing, however minute, is hidden from His sight. Distance does not prevent His hearing and darkness does not obstruct His seeing. He sees without eyes and hears without ears; just as He perceives without a brain, and seizes without a hand, and creates without an instrument, since His attributes do not resemble the attributes of created things, just as His essence does not resemble the essence of created things.

     6. Speech. And we attest that He speaks, commanding, forbidding, promising, and threatening, with a speech from eternity, ancient, and self-existing. Unlike the speech of created things, it is not a sound which is caused through the passage of air or the friction of bodies; nor is it a letter which is enunciated through the movement of the lips and tongue. We also attest that the Qur’?n, the Bible, the Gospel, and the Psalms are His books revealed to His apostles; that the Qur’?n is repeated by the tongue, written down in copies, and preserved in the heart, yet it is, nevertheless ancient, subsisting in the essence of God, not subject to division and separation through its transmission to the heart and (transcription on) leaves. We further attest that Moses heard the speech of God without sound and without word, just as the righteous see the essence of God in the hereafter, without substance or accident.

     And since He has these qualities, He is living, knowing, willing, hearing, seeing and speaking through life, power, knowledge, will, hearing, sight, and speech, not solely through His essence.

     7. Works. And we attest that there is no entity besides Him, except what originates by His action and proceeds from His justice, after the most beautiful and perfect and complete and just of ways. We attest that He is wise in His actions, just in His judgements; His justice is not comparable with that of men, since tyranny is conceivable in the case of the latter when he deals with the property of others than himself; but tyranny is inconceivable in the case of God, for He does not encounter any property of another besides Himself, so that his dealing with it might be tyrannous. Everything besides Him, men and jinn, angels and devils, Heaven and earth, animals, plants, and inanimates, substance and accident, as well as things perceived and things felt, are all originated things which He created by His power from nothing and made from nought, since He existed in eternity by Himself and there was not along with Him any other. So He originated creation thereafter as a manifestation of his power and a realisation of that which had preceded of His will and that which existed in eternity of His word, not because He had any need or necessity for it.

     We also attest that He is magnanimous in creating and inventing and in imposing obligations(takl?f), not doing it through necessity. We attest that He is gracious in beneficence and reform, though not through any need. Munificence and kindness, beneficence and grace are His, since He is able to bring upon His creatures all manner of torture and to shower upon them all kinds of pain and affliction. Even if He should do this, it would be justice on His part, it would not be vile, it would not be tyrannous. He rewards His believing servants for their acts of obedience in the spirit of generosity and encouragement rather than according to their merit and desert. For He is under obligation to none and tyranny is inconceivable in Him. None possesses any claim against Him. His claim to obedience is obligatory and binding upon all creatures [ir?dah] because He made it obligatory upon them through the words of His prophets and not by reason alone. But He sent His apostles and showed their veracity through explicit miracles and they conveyed His commands and prohibitions as well as His promises and threats. So it became obligatory upon all creatures to believe in what they brought.

The Meaning of the Second Word of the

Witness (al-shah?dah)

     The second word of the witness is that which testifies that the apostleship belongs to the Apostle, and that God sent the unlettered (ummi) Qurashite Prophet Muhammad, as an apostle to all the Arabs and the non-Arabs, to the jinn and men. And by his law He abrogated the other laws, except such of them as He confirmed. And He gave him precedence over all other prophets and made Him Lord of mankind, and declared incomplete any profession of faith which attests to unity, i.e. “There is no god but Allah,” unless it is followed by the witness to the Apostle, namely,“Muhammed is the Apostle of AIlah,’’. And he made belief in him, in all the things which he narrated concerning the affairs of this world and the hereafter, obligatory upon all creation. And He will not accept the belief of any creature until he believes in that which the Prophet narrated concerning the things after death, of which the first is the question of Munkar and Nak?r. These are two awful and terrible beings who will make the dead one sit up in the grave, both soul and body; they will ask him about the unity of God and about the apostleship, saying, “Who is the Lord, and what is the religion, and who is thy prophet?”2 They are the two inquisitors of the grave and their questions comprise the first examination after death.

    Again, man should believe that the punishment of the grave is real and that His judgment of the body and soul is just and in accordance with His will. And he should believe in the balance with the two scales and the tongue-the magnitude of which is like the stages of the Heavens and the earth; in it the deeds are weighed by the power of God, even to the weight of the mote and the mustard seed, in order to establish exact justice. The records of the good deeds will be placed in a good manner in the scale of light, and then the balance will be weighed down by them according to the measure of their favour in the sight of God and by His grace, while the records of the evil deeds will be cast in a vile manner in the scale of darkness, and they will be light in the balance through the justice of God. He should believe also that the bridge (al-?ir??) is real; it is a bridge stretched over Hell, sharper than the edge of the sword and finer than a hair. The feet of the unbelievers slip on it, according to the decree of God, and they fall into the Fire; but the feet of the believers stand firm upon it, by the grace of God, and so they pass into everlasting life. And he should believe in the frequented tank (hawd) the tank of Muhammed, from which the believers will drink before entering Paradise and after (w?jib) crossing the bridge. Whoever drinks a single draught from it will never thirst again. Its width is the distance of one month’s journey; its waters are whiter than milk and sweeter than honey. Around it are ewers in number like the stars of heaven,3  and into it flow two canals from al-kawthar 4. And he, should believe in the judgment and the distinctions between men in it, that some will be closely questioned that some will be treated with leniency and that others will enter Paradise without questioning-these are God’s favourites (al-muqurrab?n). God will ask, whomsoever He will of the prophets concerning the carrying of His message, and whomsoever of the unbelievers concerning their rejection of the apostles; 5 and He will ask the innovators concerning the law and the Muslims concerning their works. And he should believe that the monotheists will be released from Hell-fire after vengeance has been taken on them so that there will not remain in Hell a single monotheist. And he should believe in the intercession of the prophets, of the learned, and of the martyrs-each according to his dignity and rank before God. And he who remains of the believers and has no intercessor will be released through the grace of God. Therefore not a single believer will abide in Hell forever; whosoever has in his heart the weight of an atom of belief will be brought out from there. And he should acknowledge the excellence of the Companions and their different ranks, and that the most excellent of mankind, after the Prophet, is Abu-Bakr, and then ‘Umar, and then ‘Uthman, and then ‘Ali. And he should think well of all the Companions and praise them, just as God and His Apostle praised them.

     All this was handed down in traditions from the Prophet and from his Companions. Therefore he who subscribes to all this and believes in it without doubting will be of the people of truth and the Law, thus separating himself from the followers of error and heresy.

      So we ask God to perfect our faith and make us steadfast in it. We ask this, through His mercy, for ourselves and for all the Muslims throughout the world. Truly He is the most merciful. And may the blessing of God be upon our Lord Muhammed and upon very chosen servant.

 

SECTION II

On the Introduction to Religious Instruction and the

Stages of Belief.

 

     You should know that what we have already stated under the Exposition of the Creed (Book II, Sect.1) should be presented to the child in his early years in order that he may commit it to memory; its meaning will continue to be unfolded to him little by little as he grows older. The first step is to commit it to memory, after which comes understanding, then belief, then certainty and acceptance, all of which obtain in the child without proof. For God showed His grace to man by preparing his heart from the beginning for belief without the necessity of any argument or proof. How can this be denied when all the articles of faith of the common folk are based on pure instruction (talq?n) and simple acceptance on authority (taql?d)? True, a belief which results from simple acceptance of authority may not be free of some weakness at the beginning, in that it can be shaken and impaired by its opposite whenever that is mentioned. It should, therefore, be strengthened and confirmed in the heart of the child and the layman until it becomes well established and unshakeable. But the way to strengthen and confirm it does not lie in learning the art of argumentation and speculation. It is found in the reading and exposition of the Qur’?n, in the study of the traditions and their meaning, and in the performance of religious duties and acts of worship. Consequently a child’s belief continues to increase in strength through what falls on his ears of the proofs and arguments of the Qur’?n, through what reaches him of the illustrations of tradition and their merits, through what shines on him of the lights of the acts of worship and the fulfilment of the duties thereof, and finally by means of what comes to him from watching the righteous, sitting in their company, and listening to their words, as well as from observing their mark and manner in obeying God, fearing Him, and humbling themselves before Him. Instruction will then be like the sowing of the seed in the heart, while these actions will serve to water and tend the seed until it grows up and becomes strong and develops into a good and strong tree the roots of which are well grounded in the earth, while the branches reach up into the sky.

     The child should also be guarded with utmost care against argumentation and speculation, because what argumentation impairs is greater than what it repairs, and what it corrupts is greater than what it sets aright. In fact, the practice of strengthening the belief of the child through argumentation is like striking a tree with an iron mallet in the hope of strengthening it. Breaking its limbs in this way, however, will destroy it or, more likely, impair its growth. Seeing should, in this case, suffice. Compare then the creed of the righteous and pious among the common folk with that of the speculators and those given to argumentation and you will find that the belief of the commoner is as firm as the lofty mountain which is moved neither by storm nor lightning, while the creed of the speculator who guards his belief with the syllogisms of controversy is like a thread hanging in the air, blown to and fro by the winds. This is true of all except those who have heard the proof of belief and have accepted it on authority, just as they have taken hold of belief itself and accepted it on authority, since there is no difference in accepting things on authority between the proof and the thing proved. Thus learning the proof is one thing; arriving at it through independent thinking is another.

     But if the child were brought up on this doctrine and should then pursue a worldly activity in order to earn his livelihood, he might not go any farther, though he would, in the opinion of the people of the truth, be saved in the hereafter, since the Law did not require of the barbarous Arabs anything more than a verbal acceptance of the literal meaning of these articles of faith. But study and inquiry, as well as undertaking the working out of proofs, were not required of them at all [w?jib]. But if he should wish to be one of the travellers along the path of the hereafter and be fortunate therein, so that he could continue to act (according to his knowledge), holding fast to piety, “restraining his soul from lust,"[s?rah LXXIX:40] and practising self discipline and self-mortification, there would be opened for him avenues of guidance which would reveal to him the realities of this doctrine through a divine light cast into his heart by self-mortification (muj?hadah), in fulfilment of the promise of God whom He said, ‘‘And whoso striveth for us, in Our ways We will guide them; for God is assuredly with those who do right”(s?rah XXIX:69). This is, in truth, the precious pearl which is the ultimate goal of the belief of the saints and the favourites of God. The secret which rested in the bosom of Abu-Bakr al-Sidd?q and by which he excelled all others referred to this pearl. The revelation of this secret (sirr), nay, these secrets, has different stages, depending upon the degree of self mortification and upon the degree in which the inner self (al-b?tin) is clean and free of things other than God, as well as upon the obtaining of guidance by means of the light of faith(yaq?n). This is just like the differences which exist among men in the comprehension of the mysteries of medicine, jurisprudence and the other sciences, since their differences vary with their diligence and with their native endowment (fitrah) in brilliance and prudence. Just as the former variations are not limited, so are the latter not limited.

     (A case). If you say that the study of argumentation and scholastic theology (kal?m) is blameworthy, like astrology, or that it is permissible (mub?h) or  commendable (mand?b), then, you should know that in this particular respect men go to excess and exaggeration on both sides: some say that it is an innovation and therefore unlawful and that, excluding the sin of polytheism (shirk), it is better for the servant to face his God guilty of eyery offence except that of scholasticism; others say that it is an obligation and an ordinance either of the kif?yah or the ‘ayn type, that it is the best form of work and the highest kind of oblation, and that is the verification of theology and the safeguard of the religion of God. Among those who hold it unlawful are Sh?fi‘?, M?lik, Ahmad ibn-Hanbal, Sufy?n [al-Thawri] and all the traditionists among the Fathers.

     Ibn-‘Abd-al-A‘la‘6 once said, “On the day al-Sh?fi‘? was debating with Hafs al-Fard,7 who was one of the Mu‘tazilite theologians, I heard him say, ‘Excluding the sin of polytheism it is better for the slave to face his God guilty of every offence than to stand before Him with [even a] little scholasticism.’ I have also heard Hafs say things which I cannot repeat.” Ibn-Abd-al-A‘la reported also that al-Sh?fi‘? said, “I have discovered among the scholastic theologians things which I never expected to find. Excepting the sin of polytheism, it is better for the servant to disobey all the commandments of God than to address himself to scholastic theology.”

     Al-Kar?b?si related that al-Sh?fi‘? was once asked about something scholastic and was consequently infuriated and said, “Ask Hafs al-Fard and his cohorts about this-may God dishonour them.” When al-Sh?fi?? was taken sick, Hafs came in to him and said, “Who am I ?” Al- Sh?fi?? replied, “You are Hafs al-Fard-may God neither keep nor prosper you until you repent of your sins.” Said al- Sh?fi?? again, “If men but knew what predilections lurk in scholastic theology they would have run away from it as they would run away from a lion.” And again, “Whenever I hear a man say that the name is the thing named, I testify that he is a scholastic theologian and has no religion.”

     Al-Za‘far?ni8 related that al- Sh?fi?? once said, “My judgment concerning the scholastic theologians is that they should be beaten with palm branches and carried in that condition round among the tribes and clans.” This, it is said, is the penalty of those who discard the Qur’?n and the traditions and address themselves to scholastic theology.

     Ahmad ibn-Hanbal said, “A scholastic theologian never succeeds. You can hardly find anyone who, having dabbled in scholastic theology, is without unsoundness in his heart.” He was so strong in its condemnation that he ostracised al-H?rith al-Muh?sibi,9 in spite of the latter’s asceticism and godliness, because he composed a work on the refutation of heresy,10 telling him, “Woe unto you. Do you not first state their heretical beliefs and then answer them, thereby compelling men to study these heresies and to ponder over these dubiosities, all of which will draw them into speculation and controversy.” Ahmad ibn-Hanbal also said, “The scholastic theologians are heretics (sing. zindiq)."

     (Speaking of the scholastic theologian) M?lik said “Have you seen how, when one of stronger argument confronts him he will discard his religion for a new one every day?” In other words, the position of the debaters is (constantly) changing. M?lik also said, “The testimony of sectarians and heretics is not permissible.” In interpreting this, some of his friends said that he meant by sectarians (ahl al-ahw?') the scholastic theologians, no matter to what school of thought they might belong.

     Abu-Y?suf said, “He who seeks knowledge through speculation will become a heretic (zind?q).” Al-Hasan [al-Ba?ri] said, ‘‘Argue not with sectarians and associate with them not, nor hearken unto them.” 

     Thus the traditionists among the Fathers have been unanimous (in their condemnation of scholastic theology). The many strictures which came down to us from them are innumerable. They have said that the companions refrained from scholastic theology only because of their knowledge of the evils it would breed, although they were better informed and more eloquent phrase-makers than anyone else. For this reason the Prophet said, “The hairsplitters are doomed; they are doomed to destruction.” By this he meant those who are extravagant in investigation and research. [The traditionists among the Fathers] also protested that if [scholastic theology] were an integral part of religion the Apostle of God would have commanded [his Companions to address themselves to] it, and would have taught [them] its ways. He also would have praised it and commended its protagonists. He thus taught them abstersion11 (istinj?’) and urged them to study the law of inheritance (‘ilm al-far?’id)12  and commended [its teachers]. On the other hand he forbade them to speculate on divine decrees saying, “Refrain from speculation on the decrees of God,” and the Companions continued to refrain from such speculations. To add to what the teacher set forth is disloyal and unfair; the Companions are our teachers and our example, and we are their followers and disciples.

     The other group protested that the dangers in speculation are such terms as essence (jawhar) and accident (arad) and the other strange terms with which the Companions were not familiar. But the matter is not difficult to explain, because there is not a single branch of knowledge in which new terms have not been introduced for the sake of conveying meanings, as for example, the science of tradition, the science of interpretation, and the science of jurisprudence. Were these people to encounter terms such as refutation (naqd), invalidation (kasr), composition (tarkib), deduction (ta‘diyah), and false collocation (fas?d al-wad'), as well as the other questions which are adduced by analogy (qiy?s), they would not comprehend them. Therefore the introduction of new terms to signify a definite meaning is just as legitimate as inventing vessels of new shape and form for use in permissible things. If it is the meaning of these terms which is dangerous, we do not mean to attain through them anything except the knowledge of the proofs for the creation of the universe, the unity of the Creator, and (the nature of) His attributes as they have come down to us in the Law. Since when, then, has the knowledge of God by proof been unlawful? But if it is sectarianism, fanaticism, enmity, hatred, and all that speculation and controversy breed which are meant and intended, then these are unlawful and should be guarded against and avoided, just as pride, conceit, hypocrisy, and the desire for power which the sciences of tradition, interpretation, and jurisprudence breed are unlawful and should be guarded against and avoided. Nevertheless, the fact that a branch of knowledge may lead to [these evils] should not prevent one from seeking that knowledge. For how could the mention of a piece of evidence and the desire to learn and investigate it be forbidden when God said, “Say: Give your proof if ye speak the truth.”s?rahs II:105, XXI:24, XVII:69; XXVIII:75. And again “… that he who would perish might perish by clear proof, and he who would live might live by clear proof.’’13 And again, “Have ye any authority for this?” cf.S?rah X:69.  in other words [“Have ye any] evidence or proof [for this?”]. And again, “Say: Peremptory evidence is God’s.’’S?rahX:110. And again, “Hast thou not considered him who disputed with Abraham about his Lord, because God had given him the kingdom? When Abraham said, ‘My Lord is He who giveth life and death,’ he said, ‘It is I who give life and death,’ Abraham said, ‘Since God bringeth the sun from the East, do thou then bring it from the West. The infidel was confounded, for God guideth not the evil doers.”14 In this instance God mentioned with commendation the controversy between Abraham and his  adversary and how Abraham debated with the adversary and silenced him. God also said, “This is our argument with which we furnished Abraham against his people.”S?rahVI:83. And again, “They said, O Noah! Already hast thou disputed with us, and increased our disputation." 15 Again, in the story of Pharaoh, God said, “Said Pharaoh, ‘Who then is the Lord of the Worlds?’ to the words ‘What if I show thee that which shall be a proof [of my mission]?”16 In short the Qur’?n, from beginning to end, is an argument with the unbelievers. The greatest proof of theologians for the unity of God is the word of God when He said, “Had there been in either [Heaven or earth] gods besides God, both would have surely gone to ruin.”17 Their greatest proof for the prophecy is, “And if ye be in doubt as to that which we have sent down to our servant, then produce a S?rah like it.”18 Their greatest proof for the resurrection is, “Say : He shall give life to them who first gave them being.”19 

     Thus the apostle did not cease to debate with the unbelievers and dispute with them. God said, “Dispute with them in the kindest manner.”20 The Companions, too, used to debate and dispute with the unbelievers, but only in the time of need. At the time of the companions the need for disputation was small. The first to establish the precedence of summoning innovators back to truth by means of debate and argument was ‘Ali ibn-abi-T?lib when he dispatched ibn-‘Abb?s to the Kh?rijites. Ibn-‘Abb?s argued with them saying, “Would you rebel against your im?m?” But they replied, “He has fought, but did not capture any prisoners or booty.” Ibn-‘Abb?s explained to them that prisoners and booty are taken only in war against unbelievers, adding, “Would any of you, if ‘A’isha had been taken captive on the Day of the Camel21 and had fallen to his lot, have deemed it lawful to deal with her as he would have dealt with his own property [and forgot] that she was, according to the express word of the Qur’r?n, your mother?”cf.S?rah XXXIII. They answered “No,” and consequently two thousand of them surrendered.22

     It was also related that al-Hasan (a1-Bas?ari) once debated with a Qadarite23 with the result that the latter renounced his error. Similarly, ‘Ali ibn-abi-T?lib once debated with a Qadarite. It is also related that ‘Abdull?h ibn-Mas‘?d debated with Yaz?d ibn-‘Am?rah24 on the subject of belief. Said ‘Abdull?h[ibn Mas‘?d], “If I say that I am a believer it will be like saying that I am in Paradise.” Thereupon Yaz?d ibn ‘Amirah said to him, ‘‘O Companion of the Apostle of God, what is belief except to believe in God, His angels, books and aspostles, as well as in resurrection and the balance [of the day of the Judgement], and to perform prayer, observe the fast, and pay alms. Yet we have trespasses which, if we but knew that they will be forgiven us, we would know that we will be of the people of Paradise. For this reason we say that we are believers, but we do not say that we are of the people of Paradise.” Ibn-Mas‘?d replied, “By God, you have said the truth; this is a mistake on my part.” Thus it should be said that [the Companions] addressed themselves little to [speculation], and this they did briefly and only in time of need. They did not go into it [as a subject] to be written about or taught, nor did they take it up as a vocation. It is then said that they addressed themselves to it little because the need was small, since no heresy had appeared at that time. They addressed themselves to it briefly because their only purpose was to silence the adversary and compel him to admit his error; they aimed at revealing the truth and removing dubiosities. Yet whenever the confusion of the adversary persisted or his insistence on error continued, they had to prolong their argument, never reckoning, as it were, the need with weight or measure once they had embarked on their [argument]. Their not applying themselves to teaching and writing about it is not unlike their custom with regard to jurisprudence, interpretation, and tradition. Therefore, if it is permissible to compose books on jurisprudence and to work out rare hypothetical cases (?uwar) which seldom arise, either as a preparation for the time of need, or simply to sharpen the wits, it is also permissible for us to classify the methods of disputation in preparation for the time with dubiosities flare up or an innovator runs loose; or simply to sharpen the wits or have the argument ready so that when needed it will be within reach of all just as the preparation of armaments for war before the day of battle.

     This is practically all that can be said on behalf of the two groups, [the proponents and the opponents of speculation]. If you ask me what I think of this, I will say that the truth of the matter is that those who condemn it absolutely and under all circumstances as well as those who praise it absolutely and unreservedly are wrong. The question should be more carefully analysed.

     You should know, then, that first of all a thing, such as wine or carrion, may be pronounced unlawful from its very nature. What I mean by ‘its very nature’ is that the cause of its being pronounced unlawful is a quality inherent in it: intoxication [in the case of wine] and putrefaction [in the case of carrion]. If we were asked concerning these two things, we would not hesitate to say that they were absolutely unlawful, and would in no way think of allowing carrion to be eaten in time of need, nor ever think of permitting the drinking of wine when a person chokes over a mouthful of food and finds nothing with which to swallow it besides wine.

     In the second place a thing may be pronounced unlawful for some other reason, such as underselling your Muslim brother during the period of option (khiy?r),25 trading during the call to prayer, or eating earth which is pronounced unlawful because of its harmful effect. Such things are divided into those which are harmful both in small and large quantities and are therefore pronounced unlawful, like, for example, poison which is fatal whether in small or large quantity; and those which are harmful only when taken in excess like, for example, honey, which when taken in excess is harmful to the feverish patient. The same is true of eating earth. Therefore, in pronouncing wine absolutely unlawful, only the most general cases were taken into consideration. In the event that something new arises, it will be well to consider the attending circumstances. Consequently it is better and safer to analyse each case [and treat it on its own merits].

     We turn now to the science of scholastic theology (ilm al-kal?m) to say that it has advantages and disadvantages, usefulness and harm. With regard to its usefulness, whenever it is useful it is either lawful, or commendable, or obligatory, as the occasion demands. As to its harm, whenever it is harmful it is unlawful. Its harm lies in raising doubts and undermining the articles of faith by moving them out from the realm of certitude and determination. These things are lost at the beginning and their restoration by means of proof is doubtful; further more it varies with the individual.

     Such then is, its harm in the orthodox faith. Yet it has another harmful influence which manifests itself in confirming the belief of the heretics in their heresies and establishing them in their hearts so that their claims increase and their insistence on them becomes more stubborn. The kind of them, however, results from the fanaticism which disputation enkindlles. For this reason you find that the lay heretic can, through kindness, be easily dissuaded from his error in no time. But if he were brought up in a town where disputation and fanaticism abound it will be impossible for both the ancients and the moderns to remove the heresy from his heart, their combined efforts, notwithstanding. On the contrary, passion, fanaticism, hatred of the adversaries of diputation and non-conformist groups prevail over his heart and prevent him from comprehending the truth so that even if he were told, "Do you want God to remove for you the veil and to reveal to you through personal observation that the truth is on the side of your adversary?" he would dislike it for fear that his adversary would be gladdened by it. This, then, is the chronic disease which has spread among men all over the land. It is a kind of corruption which is set in motion by the diputants through their fanaticism. This much for its harm. As to its benefits [some] think that it is useful in revealing realities and knowing them as they really are. But how far from the truth this is, because the fulfilment of noble desire is not found in disputation. In fact the perplexity and confusion consequent on diputation surpass anything which it may reveal or unfold. If you were to hear that from a traditionist or a half-scholar you might think that they have been moved to that by their ignorance, for men are the enemies of that of which they are ignorant. Take it, then, from one who has familiarised himself with disputation and, after a careful study and a thorough investigation of it in which he surpassed the extreme limits of its masters and went even further to study in great detail other cognate subjects, has come to dislike it, and has ascertained that the road to the realities of knowledge is closed from this direction. Disputation, as a matter of fact,will inevitably reveal, unfold, and clarify a few things, but this is very rare and only occurs in simple and clear matters which are readily understood even before any thorough study of the art of disputation. It has only one benefit: it preserves the creed for the common folk and safeguards it against the confusion of innovators by different kinds of argumentation. For the layman is swayed by the argument of the innovator although the argument may be false; and to confront a false position with another refutes it. People are expected to follow this creed which we have already mentioned because the Law has ordained it for the good of their temporal and spiritual lives and because the righteous Fathers agreed on it. The learned men are expected to watch over it for the common folk against the ambiguities of the innovators, just as the magistrates are expected to safeguard their property against the attacks of the oppressors and ravishers.

     When both its harm and benefit are fully understood by man, he should be like the physician who is adept in the use of dangerous drugs, which he does not apply except to the right place and only at the time of need.

     To explain further, the laymen and the commom folk who are engaged in crafts and trades should be left alone in the integrity of their beliefs which  they have accepted when they have been instructed in the orthodox faith which we have already stated. To teach them disputation is decidedly harmful to them as it will perhaps arouse doubts in their minds which will shake their belief. Once these doubts are aroused it will not be possible to remedy their shaken belief.

     As to the layman who believes in a certain innovation, he should be called back to the truth with kindness and tact and not with fanaticism: with soft words which are convincing to the soul and effective in the heart, words similar to those of the arguments of the Qur’?n and the tradition, mixed with a little admonition and warning. This is much better than debate along the line set down by the scholastic theologians, since the layman, when he hears such arguments, thinks that they are a kind of technique in disputation which the disputant has learned in order to draw men to his belief. Consequently, if the layman fails to reply to these arguments he will assume that the scholastic theologians of his school are capable of refuting them. Disputation with both this man and the former is unlawful. Likewise it is unlawful to argue with one who has fallen victim to doubt, since doubt should be removed with kindness by admonition and understandable proofs free of excessive speculation and endless debate. In fact disputation is useful in only one case, namely, when the layman has been persuaded to believe in an innovation through one kind of argument, in which case it should be countered by the same kind of argument in order to recall the man to the truth. This, however, applies to him who, because of his fondness of disputation, is no longer satisfied with the ordinary admonitions and warnings, but has reached a stage where nothing will cure him except debate. Consequently it is permissible to argue with him. But in a country where heresy is rare and one rite (madhhab) prevails, it should be sufficient to state the articles of faith which we have already mentioned, without any attempt to take up the question of proofs. The person should wait until something questionable arises before he takes up the question of proofs which he should present according to the need. If the heresy were a Common one and a fear existed that the children might be beguild with it, then there would be no harm in teaching them the equivalent of what we have included in the book entitled al-Ris?lah al- Qudisyah,26 as a means for overcoming the influence of the disputations of innovators if that influence should confront the children. This is a brief thing which we included in this book because of its brevity. If [the child] were bright and therefore became aware of a certain question or grew skeptical of something in his mind, then the feared disease has appeared and the malady has become visible. There will be no harm, then, to promote [the child] to the equivalent of that which we have included in the book entitled al-Iqtis?d fi al-I'tiq?d,27 equalling about fifty folios and free from any departures from a discussion of the foundations of the articles of faith to the other investigations of the scholastic theologians. If this should convince [the child] then he might be let alone; but if this should fail to convince him, then the disease has become chronic, the malady rooted, and the epidemic widespread. Let, then, the physician be as kind and tactful as possible, and let him await the will of God until, through His grace, the truth shall be revealed to the child. Otherwise he will persist in his doubt and skepticism as long as it is so ordained.

     The amount contained in that book and others of the same kind is that from which benefit can be expected. Books not confined to the same subject are of two kinds. The first comprises books which deal with subject other than the foundations of the articles of faith, such as those which discuss propensities (i'tim?dat),28 transmutations (akw?n),29 and [the different kinds of ] perceptions (idr?k?t),30 or discoursing on sight (ru'yuh): whether or not it has an opposite which is called obstruction(man‘) or blindness, and that if this obstruction does exist, then it will be an obstruction [which prevents the eye] from [seeing] all invisible things, or [a proof which] verifies every visible thing that can be seen, as well as other misleading trivialities.

     The second kind of these books contains a further expansion of the same arguments as applied to other subjects, together with several questions and answers - details which add nothing but confusion and perplexity to him who has not already been convinced by the previous amount. For there are certain things which become more obscure with dilation and expansion. Were one to say that the investigation into the rules of perceptions and propensities is useful for sharpening the mind which is the instrument of religion just as the sword is the instrument of holy war (jih?d), hence there is no harm in sharpening it, it will be like saying that playing chess, because it sharpens the mind, is a part of religion. This, however, is insane because the mind may be sharpened through the other sciences of that Law in which there is no fear of harm or injury.

     By this you see how much of scholastic theology (kal?m) is blameworthy and how much is praise worthy, the conditions wherein it is condemned and these wherein it is praised, as well as the persons who are benefited by it and the persons who are harmed. If you should then say that, since you acknowledge the need for it in refuting [the arguments of] the innovators, and since innovations have now risen and calamities spread, the need for it has become urgent, it is inevitable that undertaking this science should become a fardkif?yah, just as undertaking to safeguard property and other rights and fulfilling the duties of justice and government and the rest. And unless the learned men engage in spreading and teaching this science and in doing researches in it, it will not endure; and if it were completely abandoned, it would surely disappear; nor is there in human nature by itself a sufficient ability to cut through the dubiosities of innovators unless this subject be learnt and studied. Therefore there should be instruction in it, and its investigation is now one of the fur?d al-kif?y?t, contrary to what it was at the time of the Companions when the need for it was not urgent.

     If you should say this, then know that the truth of the matter is that undoubtedly there should be, in every town, someone who would undertake to engage in this science and take it upon himself to refute the dubiosities of the innovators which have spread in that particular town. This undertaking is performed through education, but it is not wise to instruct the laity in it just as they are instructed in jurisprudence and interpretation. For this is like drugs, and jurisprudence is like food: the harm of food is not dangerous but the harm of drugs is dangerous as we have already mentioned.

     The learned men of this science should confine their instruction to men who have the three following traits: The first is devotion to knowledge and passion for it; for the working man is prevented by his work from mastering the subject completely and from dispelling the doubts when they arise. The second trait is sagacity, intelligence, and eloquence, because the stupid one does not benefit by his understanding and the dull one does not gain by his argument. On the contrary such a man is injured by disputation and should not expect any good from it. The third trait is that the man should by nature be good, religious, and pious; he should not be dominated by passions, because the sinful man would stray from religion at the least provocation. Passions would do away with all deterrents and remove the barrier which stands between him and worldly pleasures. He would not be keen on dispelling anything questionable, but rather would seize upon it to free himself from any obligation (takl?f). The things which such a student will spoil would be greater than those which he would reform. When you know these divisions you would realize that, in disputation the praiseworthy argument is of the same kind as the arguments of the Qur’?n: kind words which influence the hearts and convince the minds without going deeply into syllogisms and analyses which most people do not understand; and whenever they understand them they consider them trickeries and artifices which their proponent has learnt in order to make things ambiguous. Should he be confronted by one of his professional colleagues he would resist him.

    You will also know that al-Sh?fi‘i and all the Fathers were forbidden from engaging in disputation and devoting themselves exclusively to it, because of the harm inherent in it which we have already pointed out. The reports of ibn-‘Abb?s’ debate with the Kh?rijites and ‘Ali’s debate concerning free will (qadar) [show that their disputation] was of the clear and intelligent kind, carried out at the time of need. Such disputation is praiseworthy under all conditions. Undoubtedly the need for disputation differs with the time; therefore it is not unlikely that the rule which governs it should also differ. This then is the rule of the creed which God imposed on man and the method of defending and preserving it.

     As to dispelling doubts, revealing truths, knowing things as they really are, and comprehending the mysteries (asr?r) which the words of this creed signify, there is no way to attain any of them except through self-mortification (muj?hadah) and the subduing of passions, through seeking God wholeheartedly and persisting in thoughts which are free from the blemishes of disputation. They are a mercy from God which comes to those who expose themselves to its beneficence according to what God ordained to them and the extent to which they had exposed themselves to it as well as the capacity of their hearts and the degree of their purity. This is the sea the depth of which cannot be sounded and the waters of which can not be traversed.

     If you should say that this discourse implies that these sciences have external as well as internal meanings, that some of them are obvious and readily understood, while others are hidden and become evident through self-mortification, discipline, earnest desire, pure thinking and a heart (sirr) free from all wordly activities except those which are required, and conclude that such discourse is almost contrary to the Law since the Law does not have external and internal meanings, secret and manifest, but the external and the internal, the secret and the manifest, are in it all the same, then you should know that the division of these sciences into hidden and obvious is not denied by anyone of any insight but is denied by the ignorant who, having acquired some knowledge in their youth, did not advance any further and consequently failed to gain promotion to the lofty heights where lie the stations (maq?m?t) of the learned men and the saints. This is evident from the testimony of the Law as the Prophet said, “Verily there is to the Qur’?n an external meaning and an internal meaning, a scope and a point.” ‘Ali, pointing to his breast, said, “Verily herein lies abundant knowledge; would that there were some to [comprehend and] transmit it.” The Prophet also said, “We prophets were ordered to communicate with everyone according to his ability to understand.” And again, “No one has ever recited a tradition to a people which their minds have failed to grasp without being a temptation for them.” God said,“These similitudes do We set forth to men: and none understands them except those who know." S?rah XXIX:42. The Prophet said, “Verily of knowledge is a branch which resembles a hidden thing; no one grasps it save those who know God.” And again, “If you only know what I know, you would laugh little and weep much.”31 If this had not been a secret which he was forbidden to divulge because of the inability of the minds to comprehend it, why then did he not explain it to them, especially since they would have certainly believed him if he had done so? In connexion with the interpretation of the words of God, “It is God who hath created seven heavens and as many earths; the [divine] command cometh down among them.’’S?rah LXV:12. ibn-‘Abb?s said, “Were I to relate its interpretation, you would stone me”-and according to another version,“you would have said, ‘He is an unbeliever’.” Abu-Hurayrah said, “I have received from the Apostle of God two things, one of which I have made public. Were I to divulge the other, this throat would be cut.” The Prophet said, “Abu-Bakr has excelled you not by excessive fasting and much prayer, but by a secret (sirr) which rested in his bosom.”  No doubt this secret was connected with the foundations of religion and not removed from it. And whatever belonged to the foundations of religion could not have been hid from the other Companions through its outward form. Sahl al-Tustari said, “The learned man possesses three kinds of knowledge: exoteric (Z?hir) which he imparts to the followers of exoteric knowledge; esoteric (b?tin) which he cannot reveal except to its own people; and finally a knowledge which lies between him and His God and which he cannot reveal to anyone.” One of ‘the gnostics (sing.?rif) said, “To divulge the secret of Lordship (r?b?biyah) is [equivalent to] unbelief.” Some one also said, ‘Lordship has a secret, if revealed, prophecy will become obsolete; prophecy has a secret, if divulged, knowledge will become useless; and the learned men of God have a secret, if disclosed, the law will become of no force.” If he who had said this did not thereby mean the futility of prophecy as far as the feeble minded are concerned because of their inability to understand, then what he said is not true. Rather, that which is true is free of contradiction. The perfect man is he whose knowledge does not destroy his piety, and the road to piety is through prophecy.

     You may say, " These verses and traditions may be subject to several interpretations. Show us, then, how their exoteric meaning differs from the esoteric. For if the exoteric is contradictory to the esoteric, it will destroy the Law, which is exactly the position of those who say that reality is contrary of the Law. This is sheer unbelief because the Law represents the exoteric and reality represents the esoteric. If the one is neither contradictory to, nor in disagreement with, the other, then both are identical. Therefore the division [of knowledge into obvious and hidden, exoteric and esoteric] is hereby destroyed and the Law will have no secret [meaning] which should not be divulged. Rather both the hidden and the obvious will be the same.” If you should so inquire, then you should know that this question raises a grave issue and leads into the science of revelation (al-muk?shafah) departing from the intent of the science of practical religion (al-mu'?malah) which is the purpose of these books. For the articles of faith which we have already mentioned come under the works of the heart which we are required to receive with acceptance and consent, by fixing the heart on them and adhering to them, not by endeavouring to comprehend their realities, since this was not required of all people. Were it not a part of practical religion we would not have mentioned it in this book, and were is not one of the outward works of the heart we would not have mentioned it in the first half of the book. Real [and complete] revelation is an attribute of the essence of the heart and its inward part. But if the discussion leads to the stirring up of doubt or the shadow of doubt concerning the contradiction of the exoteric to the esoteric, a brief word of explanation becomes necessary. For he who says that reality disagrees with the Law and the esoteric contradicts the exoteric is closer to unbelief than to belief. In fact, the secrets whose comprehension is peculiar to the favourites of God (al-muqarrab?n) and the practice of which is limited to them and which they do not divulge to the masses may be divided into five categories:

     The first is that the thing in itself is subtle and beyond the comprehension of most minds. Consequently its, comprehension is restricted to the elite who should not divulge it to those who are unable to grasp it lest, whenever their minds fail to comprehend it or to understand the concealed secrets of the spirit, it becomes a calamity to them. The Apostle himself refrained from explaining this part.32 The minds fail to comprehend its reality and the imaginations to imagine its truth. But do dot think that this was not revealed to the Apostle of God, for he who does not know the spirit does not know himself, and he who does not know himself does not know his God. It is not unlikely that this was revealed to some of the saints and the learned men although they were not prophets; but they disciplind themselves in the etiquette of the Law and held their peace in the matters where the Apostle himself was silent. In fact there are in the attributes of God many a hidden thing which are beyond the comprehension and understanding of the crowds. Of these, the Apostle of God did not mention anything except those that are obvious to the minds, such as knowledge and power and the like, which men understand in terms of something akin to them and then suppose that they performed the feat through their own knowledge and power, especially since they possess certain qualities which are called knowledge and power. Consequently they arrive at that by some manner of analogy. But if the Apostle mentioned some of the attributes of God to which men have nothing akin and which do not resemble, even remotely, anything they possess, they would not have understood them. Thus, the pleasure of coition, if mentioned to the child or to the impotent, will not be understood by them except in relation to the pleasure of eating which they comprehend. This understanding, however, will not be one of actual experience. Further more, the difference between God’s knowledge and power and human knowledge and power is greater than the difference between the pleasure of coition and the pleasure of eating. In short, man does not comprehend except himself and his own attributes which are present with him or were with him in the past. By comparison and analogy with these he understands the attributes of others. He will also realize that there is a difference between his attributes and those of God in nobleness and perfection. Therefore it is not within the power of men but to declare as belonging to God what has been declared as belonging to himself, such as action, knowledge, and power as well as other attributes, and to acknowledge that in the case of God they are more perfect and more noble. Most of his emphasis would, therefore, be on his own attributes rather than on those of majesty which belong exclusively to God. For this reason the Prophet said, “I shall not praise Thee as Thou hast praised Thyself.” This does not mean the inability to express what I comprehend but rather an admission of the inability to comprehend the essence of the majesty of God. For this reason again someone said “No one has truly known God except God Himself.” Abu-Bakr al-Siddiq said, “Praise be to God who hath not given men a way to know Him except through their inability to know Him.”

     Let us now, however, stop this kind of discussion and go back to the main purpose, namely that one of these categories comprises that which the minds fail to comprehend, such as the spirit (al-r?h) and some of the attributes of God. Perhaps the Prophet referred to something of the same nature when he said, “Verily God hath seventy veils of light. If He would remove them, the majesty of His face would consume every one whose eyes might happen to behold His glory.”33

     The second category of the hidden things which the prophets and the saints decline to mention or divulge comprises those things which are intelligible in themselves and the minds do not fail to grasp, but their mention is harmful to most hearers although it is not harmful to the prophets and the saints. The secret of the decrees of God which the learned men were forbidden to divulge belongs to this part. Consequently it is not unlikely that certain truths may be harmful to some people just as the light of the sun is harmful to the eyes of bats and the rose perfume is harmful to blackbeetles. And how could this be deemed unlikely when we know that our saying that unbelief, adultery, sin, and evil exist all by the will of God, which in itself is true, but, nevertheless, has been harmful to many because it was taken by them as an evidence for folly, lack of wisdom, and approval of evil and wickedness? Thus has al-R?wandi,34 as well as several separatists, deviated from the right path by following such heresies.

     Similarly, if the secret of the decrees of God were divulged most people would fancy that God is lacking in power, because their minds are incapable of comprehending anything which will remove that fancy. Furthermore, if someone should discuss the day of resurrection and should say that it will fall after a thousand years, or a few years after or a few years before, his words would be understood. Nevertheless the appointed time of the day of resurrection was not foretold for the welfare of men and for fear of the harm which might ensue. The [intervening] period may be long and the appointed time very distant, with the result that people, thinking that the day of retribution is remote, would cease to mind or care. On the other hand it may be, in the knowledge of God, close at hand. If then, the appointed time should be foretold, people would be greatly frightened with the result that they would neglect their [daily] work and transactions and havoc would overtake the world. Were this to occur and come true, it would be an example of this category.

     The third category is where the thing is such as will be understood and cause no harm when mentioned clearly, although it is usually expressed through metaphor or allegory so that its impression on the heart of the listener may be deeper. Its value is that it leaves a greater impression on the heart. Thus if a person had said that he had seen a man place pearls around the necks of swine and his words were taken metaphorically to express the imparting of knowledge to, and the spread of learning among those who are unworthy, the [ordinary] listener would readily understand its literal meaning while the thorough and careful listener, when he examines and finds that the man had no pearls and was not surrounded by swine, would see through and comprehend the inner and esoteric meaning. Consequently men differ in this respect. An example of this kind of speech is the following:

A weaver and a tailor toil

On either side of Spica Virginis;

The one is weaving shrouds for the dead,

The other fashions swaddling clothes.

 

The poet expressed the celestial phenomena of the rising (iqb?l) of the stars and their setting (idb?r) metaphorically through the parable of two artisans. This kind of [metaphor] belongs to the principle of expressing a certain meaning through a picture which contains the same meaning or a similar meaning. Belonging to the same kind are the words of the Prophet when he said, "Verily the mosque will shrink when people spit on its courtyard just as the piece of skin will shrink when it is placed over the fire.” You can readily understand that the courtyard of the mosque does not actually shrink when people spit on it. What the words of the Prophet really mean is that the atmosphere of the mosque, being honoured and exalted, has been dishonoured and belittled by spitting, which is as opposed to the idea of the mosque as fire is to the integrity of the particles of skin. Belonging to the same kind are the words of the Prophet when he said, "Is he who raises his head from prostration before the im?m not afraid that God will transform his head into that of a donkey?”35 This, however, will never take place literally but only metaphorically since the head of the donkey is proverbial, not for its form and shape, but for its characteristic stupidity and foolishness. Thus, whoever would raise his head from prostration before the im?m, his head would become like that of a donkey in stupidity and foolishness. It is this which is meant and not the shape which the literal meaning [of the words] indicates. For it is utterly foolish to place following[the im?m] and preceding [him] together because they are contradictory. The knowledge that, in such cases, there are inner meanings which differ from the outward significations, can only be determined by either rational or legal evidence. The rational is when any interpretation according to the outward meaning is impossible, as in the words of the Prophet when he said, “The heart of the believer lies between two of the fingers of the Merciful [God].” When we examine the hearts of the believers we shall not find them surrounded with fingers, and consequently we shall know that the words are used metaphorically for power which is inherent in figures and constitutes their hidden life. Furthermore, power was metaphorically represented by the fingers because such a metaphor conveys the idea of power more completely. Of the same kind is the instance where God expresses the idea of His power metaphorically by saying, “Our words to a thing when We will it is but to say, ‘Be,’ and it is” S?rahXVI; 42. The outward meaning of this verse is not possible because if the saying of God ‘Be’ was addressed to the thing before that thing came into existence, then it would simply be an impossibility since the non-existent does not understand address and, therefore, can not obey. And if it was addressed to the thing after the thing has come into existence, then it would be superfluous, since the thing is already in existence and does not need to be brought into being. But whereas this metaphor has been more impressive upon the minds in conveying the idea of the greatest power, recourse has been made to it.

    Those cases where the inner meaning is determined by means of legal evidence are the cases which can be interpreted according to their literal and outward signification, but, on the authority of tradition, a meaning other than the outward was intended, as is the case in the interpretation of the words of God when he said, “He sendeth down the water from Heaven: then flow the torrents in their due measure, and the flood beareth along a swelling foam.” S?rahXIII:18 Here the word water stands for the Qur’?n which the torrents represent the hearts. Some of the hearts receive and hold much; others receive much and hold little; while others still receive much and hold nothing at all. The foam represents unbelief and hypocrisy, which, although it rises to and floats upon the surface of the water, does not last; but guidance which benefits men, endures. Into this part a group of men went deeply and interpreted the things which were mentioned in connexion with the hereafter, such as the balance (al-m?z?n), the bridge (al-?ir?t), and the like. All this, however, is innovation because it was not handed down by tradition, especially since its literal and outward interpretation is not impossible. Therefore it should be interpreted literally.

     The fourth category is where man comprehends the thing in a general way and then through further investigation and experimentation, he understands its particulars so that it becomes a part of him. Thus the two kinds of knowledge differ. The first, (i.e. the general) resembles the husks, while the second (i.e. the particular), resembles the pith. The first is the exoteric or outward, the second is the esoteric or inward. This is just like the example of the man who sees a person in the dark or from a distance and acquires a certain picture of that person. But when he sees him from a close range or after the darkness is gone, he realizes certain differences [between this second picture and the first]. This last picture, however, is not opposed to the first but complementary to it. The same is true of knowledge, faith, and belief. For a man may believe in the existence of love, sickness, and death even before any of them occur. But to believe in their existence after they have taken place is more complete than believing in their existence before they take place. In fact man has, with regard to passion and love as well as the other conditions, three different stages and three distinct degrees of comprehension. The first is to believe in the existence of the thing before it takes place; the second is to believe in its existence at the time of its occurrence; and third is to believe in its existence after it has taken place. To recognize the existence of hunger after it is gone is different from recognizing its existence before it is gone. Similarly, there are some of the sciences of religion which mature by experience and their mature state as compared with their premature state is like the esoteric as compared to the exoteric. Hence there is a difference between the sick man’s knowledge of health and the healthy man’s knowledge of it. In short, men differ in these four parts; yet in none of them is there an esoteric meaning which contradicts the exoteric. Rather the exoteric meaning completes and perfects the esoteric just as the pith completes the husk.

     The fifth category is where concrete words are used figuratively. The feeble minded will regard the literal and exoteric meaning sensible and will not go beyond it; but the man who has an insight for realities will comprehend the secret it contains. This is like the words of him who said, “The wall said to the peg, ‘why do you split me?’ The peg replied, [‘How do I know?]. As him who is hitting me and does not let me go. Go see the mallet which is behind me' ” This is, undoubtedly, figurative. Of the same kind are the following words of God, “Then He applied Himself to the Heaven, which was then but smoke: and to it and to the Earth He said, ‘Come ye, whether in obedience or against your will? And they both said, ‘We come obedient’’S?rahXLI:10. The stupid one, because of his lack of understanding, would assume that both ‘the Heaven and the earth possess life, intellect, and the ability to understand speech. He would also assume that they were addressed by a speech of actually enunciated words which both could hear and reply to with enunciated words saying, “We come obedient.” But he who has insight would realise that this was a figurative [use of language], and that God only expressed the idea that the Heaven and earth are subject to His will. Of the same kind, too, are the words of God when He said, “Neither is there aught which does not celebrate His praise.” S?rahXVII:46. The stupid one, because of his lack of understanding, would assume that the inanimate things possess life, intellect, and the ability to speak and enunciate words, so that they would have to say, “Praise be to God” in order that His praise might be established. But he who has insight would know that no actual utterance with the tongue was meant by that, but merely that everything, through his own existence, praises God, and in its own essence sanctifies Him and attests to His unity. As has been said:

                                      In everything He has a song

                                      Which declares that He is one.’36

In the same way it is said, “This masterpiece testifies that its maker possesses fair ability and perfect knowledge.” This does not mean that the masterpiece actually utters the words, “I testify…" etc. but merely that, through its form and state, [it testifies to the ability and knowledge of its maker]. Similarly everything does, in itself, stand in need of a creator to create and sustain it, to maintain its attributes and to move it to and fro in its different states. And through its need it testifies to its Maker by hallowing Him. Such a witness is comprehended by those who have insight, not those who stand still and venture not beyond externals. For this reason God said, “But their utterances of praise ye understand not.”S?rahXVII:46. The feeble minded do not understand this at all, while the favourites of God and the versatile learned men do not understand it perfectly because everything hallows God and praises Him in many ways and each comprehends according to his intellect and insight. The enumeration of these witnesses is not becoming under the science of practical religion. In this part too those who cling to externals differ from those who have insight, and in it the disagreement between the esoteric and the exoteric becomes evident. In this connexion people are either extremists or followers of the middle-road. As extremists, some have gone so far in the [allegorical] interpretation of words that they have explained away all or most of their outward and literal meaning. They have taken the words of God, “Yet shall their hands speak unto us and their feet shall bear witness,” S?rahXXXVI:65. as well as, “And they shall say to their skin, ‘Why witness ye against us?’ They shall say, ‘God who giveth a voice to all things, hath given us voice'," S?rahXLI:20. and the conversation which takes place between Munkar and Nak?r, and in the balance (al-m?z?n), the bridge (al-?ir?t), and the judgment day together with the debate between the people of Hell and the people of Heaven when [the former] said, “Pour upon us some water, or of the refreshments God hath given you,” and claimed that all this was figurative. On the other hand some went to the opposite extreme and forbade [any but the literal interpretation]. Among those was Ahmad ibn- Hanbal who went as far as to forbid the allegorical interpretation of the words of God ‘‘‘Be’, and it is.”S?rahXVI:42. [His followers] have claimed that these words were words of actual speech with enunciated letters and sounds brought into existence by God every moment He created a created thing. I have even heard one of his followers say that [Ahmad ibn-Hanbal] forbade the allegorical interpretation of all but three traditions, namely the words of the Prophet when he said, “The Black Stone (al-Hajar al-Aswad) is the right hand of God in the earth;” and, “The heart of the believer lies between two of the fingers of the Merciful [God];” and “Verily I shall find the soul of the Merciful [God coming] from the direction of al-Yaman.” [Even here] the literalists have been inclined to forbid any allegorical interpretation. It is assumed, however, that Ahmad ibn-Hanbal knew that ascending (istiw?’) is not fixity of location (istiqr?r), and descending (nuz?l) is not change of location (intiq?l); nevertheless he forbade allegorical interpretation for the good and welfare of people, since whenever it is allowed matters become worse and go out of control, overstepping the limits of moderation. Things which go beyond the limits of moderation are beyond control. Therefore there is no harm done by such a prohibition which is also attested by the lives of the Fathers who used to say, [when discussing verses and traditions], “Take them literally as they have been [revealed and] handed down.Thus M?lik, on being asked about ascending (istiw?’), went so far as to say, “The fact of ascending (istiw?’) is known but its manner is not; to believe in it is an obligation, to inquire about its  manner is a  heresy.’’

     Another group advocated the middle of the road position and permitted allegorical interpretation in everything which relates to the attributes of God but have taken the things which pertain to the hereafter in a literal sense and forbade their allegorical interpretation. The advocates of this position are the Ash‘arites.37 The Mu‘tazilites go further.38 They explain away the possibility of seeing God and His being possessed of hearing and sight. They also explain away the ascension (al-mi'r?j) of the Prophet and claim that it had not taken place bodily, the punishment of the grave, the balance, the bridge, and other eschatological representations. Nevertheless they confess the resurrection of the body, Paradise with its food, perfume, and sex as well as other sensual pleasures, and Hell with burning first which scorch the skin and melt the fat.

     The philosophers go still further. They interpret all eschatological representations as allegories denoting mental and spiritual pain, and mental and spiritual delight. They deny the resurrection of the body but believe in the immortality of the soul and that it will be punished or made happy by punishment and delight of non-sensual nature. They are extremists.

     The true middle-road between this complete allegorism and the rigidity of the Hanbalites is subtle and obscure. It is found only by those who enjoy divine guidance and comprehend things by the aid of divine light, not by hearsay. Then when the mysteries of things are revealed to them, so that they see them as they are, they go back to [the Qur'?n] and traditions and their wording; whatever agrees with what they see with the light of certainty they affirm, and whatever disagrees with it they interpret allegorically.

     But he who bases his knowledge of these things on mere hearsay will thereby fail to secure a firm foothold or gain a well-defined position therein. Such a man who confines himself to mere hearsay would do better to follow the position of Ahmad ibn-Hanbal.

     But a closer examination and definition of the middle-road position in these things belongs to the vast subject of revelation which we must leave aside. Our aim was only to make clear that the esoteric and exoteric may be in harmony with one another and that no disagreement exists between them. At any rate many things have been unfolded through [our discussion] of these five parts. It is our opinion that for the common people the explanation of the creed which we have already given is sufficient for them and that nothing further will be required of them in the first degree [where they stand]. But if any fear of disturbances arises on account of the spread of heresies, then, in the second degree, recourse may be had to a [statement of the] creed wherein a brief and undetailed outline of the obvious proofs is presented. We shall, therefore, present these obvious proofs in this book and shall confine ourselves therein to what we have issued to the people of Jerusalem, entitled al-Ris?lah al-Quds?yah fi Qaw?'id al-'Aq?'id (The Jerusalem Epistle on the Foundations of the Articles of Faith) and contained in the third section of this book.

 

SECTION III

The Third Section of the Book on the Foundations of

the Articles of Faith :

On the Obvious Proofs for the Creed

Written In Jerusalem

     We say-In the name of God the Merciful, the Compassionate. Praise be to God who distinguished the community of the faithful with the lights of certainty and favoured the people of truth by guiding them to the bulwarks of faith; who saved them from the errors of the unrighteous and the wickedness of the unbelievers, and with His grace led them to follow the example of the chief Apostle; who directed their footsteps in the way of the honoured Companions of the Apostle and enabled them to emulate  the righteous Fathers, so that they protected themselves against the dictates of [sheer] reason with the strong cord [of God], and against the lives and beliefs of the ancients with the clear beaten track [of the Fathers], combining thereby the products of reason and the ordinances of the traditional Law. Furthermore they found out that mere verbal repetition of the words “There is no god but God; Muhammad the Apostle of God” is of no avail unless they completely understand what fundamental principles the words of the witness involve. They also have known that the two words of the witness, despite their brevity, contain an affirmation of the existence of God Himself, His attributes, and His works, as well as an affirmation of the truthfulness of the Apostle. They have also known that faith is founded upon four pillars (sing. rukn) each of which involves ten principles (sing.a?l).

     The first pillar (rukn) is the knowledge of the essence of God and involves ten principles (sing.a?l). They are the knowledge that God exists and that He is ancient and subsisting; that He is neither substance nor body nor accident; that He is not limited by direction (jihah) nor fixed in location; that He is seen and that He is one.

     The second pillar treats of the attributes of God and comprises ten principles. They are the knowledge that He is living, knowing, powerful, willing, possessed of hearing, seeing, and speaking; that He is removed from being a substratum for originated properties or a locus of phenomena; and that His words, knowledge and will are ancient and eternal.

     The third pillar pertains to the works of God and involves ten principles. They are : that men’s actions are created and willed by God and acquired by men; that God has been gracious to create and to invent; that He is free to impose unbearable obligations and to punish the innocent, while taking into consideration that which is salutary (al-a?lah) is not obligatory upon Him; that there is nothing obligatory except by Law; that the sending of prophets is possible and the prophecy of our Prophet Muhammad is true, being confirmed by miracles.

     The fourth pillar is on the things accepted on authority (sam'iy?t) and involves ten principles. They are the affirmation of the day of resurrection and the day of judgement, the inquisition [of the dead by] Munkar and Nak?r, the torment of the grave, the balance, the bridge, the creation of Paradise and Hell, the nature of the im?mate, that the excellence of the Companions is in accordance with the chronological order, the qualifications of the im?mate, and that even though piety and knowledge are not possible to obtain [in the incumbent], his im?mate is considered legitimate and binding.

     The first among the pillars of belief is the knowledge of the essence of God and that He is one and it involves ten principles.

     The first principle is the knowledge of the existence of God. The first light which should be used for illumination and the first thing to be followed on the road of admonition are the instructions of the Qur'?n, since no explanation is better than that of God. Thus He said, "Have We not made the Earth a couch? And the Mountains its tent-stakes? We have created you of two sexes, and ordained you sleep for rest, the night as a mantle, and the day for gaining livelihood. We built above you seven solid heavens, and placed therin a burning lamp;  and We sent down waters in abundance from the rain-clouds, that We might bring forth by it corn and herbs, and gardens thick with trees" S?rah LXXVIII : 6-16. And again, "Assuredly in the creation of the Heaven and of the Earth; and in the alternation of night and day; and in the ships which pass through the sea with what is useful to man; and in the rain which God sendeth down from Heaven, giving life by it to the earth after its death, and by scattering over it all kinds of cattle; and in the change of the winds, and in the clouds that are made to do service between the Heaven and the Earth; - are signs for those who understand.” S?rah II 159. He also said, “See ye not how God hath created the seven heavens one over the other?  And he hath placed therein the moon as a light, and hath placed there the sun as a torch; and God hath caused you to spring forth from the earth like a plant; hereafter He will turn you back into it again, and will bring you forth anew.” S?rah LXXI:14-17. And again, “What think ye? The germ of life-is it ye who created them? or we their creator? Is it we who have decreed that death should be among you; yet are we not thereby hindered from replacing you with others, your likes, or from producing you again in a form which ye know not. Ye have known the first creation: will ye not then reflect ? What think ye ? That which ye saw-. Is it ye who cause its upgrowth, or do we cause it to spring forth? If we pleased we could so make your harvest dry and brittle that ye would ever marvel (and say), ‘Truly we have been at cost, yet we are forbidden harvest.’ What think ye of the water ye drink? Is it ye who send it down from the clouds, or send we it down? Brackish could we make is, if we pleased : Will ye not then be thankful ? What think ye? The fire which ye obtain by friction-is it ye who rear its tree, or do we rear it? It is we who have made it a memorial and a benefit to the wayfarers of the deserts. S?rah LVI:58-72. Any one with the least traces of brain in his head will, upon reflecting upon the import of these verses and examining the wonders of God’s handiwork, in Heaven and on earth as well as the beauties of nature in animal and plant, realizes that this wonderful [universe] with its consummate order requires a creator to direct it and a maker to govern it and watch it over. Human nature, in tact, testifies that it is subject to the will of God and governed in accordance with His law. For this reason God said, “Is there any doubt concerning God, maker of the Heavens and of the Earth?” S?rahXIV:11. The prophets were, therefore, sent in order to call men to monotheism, that they may say, “There is no god but God.” They were not, however, commanded to say, We have a god and the world has another,” because such a thing is inborn in their minds from the time of their birth. For this reason God said, “If thou ask them who hath created the heavens and the earth, they will certainly reply ‘God’.”S?rahXXXI:24. And again,‘ “Set thou thy face then, as a true convert (han?f), towards the faith which God hath made, the native [religion] whereon God constituted man.”S?rahXXX:29. Therefore there is in human nature and the testimonies of the Qur’?n what will render the task of citing proofs unnecessary. Nevertheless, by way of preparation and following the example of the learned theologians, we say:

     One of the accepted axioms of the mind is that an originated phenomenon can not come into existence without a cause. Since the world is an originated phenomenon, it can not, come into existence without a cause. That originated phenomena can not come into existence without a cause, is obvious. For every originated phenomenon belongs to a certain definite time the precedence or the subsequence of which may be assumed. Its being definite in time and distinct from what preceded it and what succeeded it, will naturally require one who renders things definite [in time]. As to one saying that the world is an originated phenomenon, its proof is found in the fact that bodies are not independent of motion and rest. Both states are originated phenomena; and whatever is not independent of originated things is itself originated. The proof comprises three assertions of claims.

     The first is that bodies are not independent of motion and rest. This is readily understood and requires neither meditation nor thinking, for he who conceives of a body in neither the kinetic state nor in the static state is both ignorant and foolish.

     The second assertion is our saying that both motion and rest are originated phenomena, the proof of which is found in the alternation and in the appearance of the one after the other is gone. This is true of all bodies, those that have been seen as well as those that have not been seen. For there is not a static object the potential motion of which is not required by the mind, and there is no moving object the potential rest of which is not required by the mind. The novel (??ri’) is originated because of its emergence and the anterior (s?biq), because of its extinction (‘adam), since if its eternity (qidam) were established its extinction would have become impossible, as we shall show and prove in establishing the subsistence (baq?’) of the Maker.

     The third assertion is our statement that whatever is not independent of originated things is itself originated. Its proof lies in the fact that if it were not so, then there would be, before every originated phenomenon, other originated phenomena which have no beginning; and unless these originated phenomena come to nought in their entirety, the turn for the present originated phenomena to come into being immediately would never arrive. But it is impossible for that which has no end to come to nought. Furthermore if the celestial spheres have revolutions, the numbers of which have no end, it is inevitable that their numbers be either odd or even, or both odd and even, or neither odd nor even. But it is impossible that their numbers be both odd and even at the same time, or neither odd nor even for this would be a combination of both the negative and the affirmative, since in the affirmation of the one is the negation of the other, and in the negation of the one is the affimation of the other.

     Furthermore they can not possibly be even because the even number becomes odd with the addition of one; and how could that which has no end be wanting one? Nor can they possibly be odd because the odd number becomes even with the addition of one; and how could it be wanting one when its number has no end ? (Again they cannot possibly be neither odd nor even for this will mean that they have an end).’39 Therefore the conclusion is that the world is not independent of originated phenomena, and that which is not independent of originated phenomena is itself originated. And when its being an originated phenomena has been established, its need for an originator becomes axiomatic.

     The second principle is the knowledge that God is ancient (qad?m) from eternity (azali). He has no beginning, but He is the beginning of everything and before anything living or dead. The proof of this is found in supposing that if God were originated and not ancient, He would have been in need of an originator Himself. In turn His originator would also need an originator and so on to infinity. And that which goes on and on endlessly will never reach an ancient originator which is the first cause. This is the required thing which we have called the Maker of the world and its Creator and Fashioner.

     The third principle is the knowledge that God, besides being without beginning, is also everlasting without end. He is the first and the last, the visible and the invisible, since that of which the eternity is established its coming to an end is impossible. Its proof lies in the realization that if it came to nought it is inevitable that it should come to nought either by itself or through an opposing annihilating agency. And if it were possible for a thing, which is conceived of as self-subsisting, to come to nought, it will be possible for a thing, which is conceived of as self-annihilating, to come into being. And just as the sudden emergence (?aray?n) of existence requires a cause (sabab), so does the emergence of extinction require a cause. That it will come to nought through an opposing annihilating agency is false, because if that annihilating agency were ancient (qad?m), existence side by side with it would be inconceivable. But we have learnt in the two previous principles of the existence and eternity of God.  How then did He exist in eternity with His opposite? If, however, the opposing annihilating agency were an originated phenomenon, its existence from eternity would be impossible because for the originated phenomenon to oppose the ancient and destroy its existence is less likely than the ancient to oppose the originated and prevent its existence. In fact prevention (daf ) is easier than destruction while the ancient is stronger and more pre-eminent than the originated.

     The fourth principle is that God is not a substance which can be isolated. Rather He transcends everything which resembles isolation. The proof of this lies in the fact that every substance which is definite (mutahayyiz), is limited by its own place and is inevitably either quiescent in it or moving away from it. Therefore it is not independent of motion or quiescence. But both these are originated, and that which is not independent of originated phenomena is itself originated.

     If an ancient definite substance were conceivable the eternity of the substances of the world would have been reasonable. And if a person should use the term substance [for God] and not mean thereby a definite substance, he would be mistaken as far as the use of the term is concerned, not as far as the meaning for which he had used it.

     The fifth principle is that God is not a body (jism) composed of different substances, since the body is that which is composed of substances. When His being a substance limited by place is refuted, His being a body is also refuted, because every body is limited by place and is composed of substances. But it is impossible for the substance to be free from division, composition, motion, quiescence, form, and quantity, all of which are characteristic of originated phenomena. And if it were possible to believe that the Maker of the world is a body, it would also be possible to believe in the Divinity of the sun and the moon as well as other heavenly bodies. If, therefore, one should dare and call God a body but not mean thereby a composition of substances, he would be wrong as far as the name is concerned, but not in negating the idea of body.

     The sixth principle is the knowledge that God is not an accident (‘arad) subsisting in a body or existing in a substratum; because an accident is that which exists in a body. But every body is inevitably originated and as such its originator exists before it. How then could [God] exist in a body when He has existent in eternity alone, with no other besides Himself, and then originated the bodies and the accidents after Himself. [Again how could He exist in a body] when He is a knowing, and able, and willing Creator as shall be discussed later. It is impossible for these attributes to exist in accidents. On the contrary they are impossible except in a self-existing and self-sufficient being. The conclusion derived from these principles is that [God] is a self-existing being, neither substance, nor body, nor accident; that the whole world is made of substances, accidents, and bodies, and consequently He resembles nothing and nothing resembles Him. He is the living, the subsisting, there is none like unto Him. For how could the created resemble its creator, the ordained he who ordained it, and the fashioned, he who fashioned it. All bodies and accidents were created and made by Him; hence it is impossible that they be like unto Him or [in any way] resemble Him.

     The seventh principle is the knowledge that God is removed from being limited by any direction because a direction is either above or below, right or left, before or behind. All these He had created and originated through the creation of man whom he made with two extremities, the one rests on the earth and comprises his feet, while the opposite extremity is his head. Consequently the term above was originated to indicate the direction of the head and the term below, the direction of the feet. This is true even of the ant which creeps on the ceiling with the result that the directions, in relation to it, are reversed-what we consider above is to it below, and what we consider below is to it above. Similarly man was created with two hands, the one usually stronger than the other. The term right was therefore originated to indicate the direction of the stronger hand and the term left to indicate the opposite direction. Consequently the right hand side is called the right and the opposite direction thereof is called the left. Man was also created with two [other] directions from one of which he sees and toward which he moves. Consequently the term before was originated to designate the direction toward which he moves, while the term behind was originated to designate the opposition.

     Therefore the directions are originated through the creation of man; and had he not been created along these lines, but rather created round like a sphere, these directions would never have existed. How then could God have been limited by any direction in eternity when every direction is originated. Or how could He have become limited by any direction when He never had any direction above Him when He created man; for that will mean that He has a head, since above designates the direction above the head. But God is too exalted [above His creatures] to have a head [like their heads]. Again how could He have become limited by any direction when He never had any direction below Him when he created man; for that will mean that He has feet, since below designates the direction below the feet. But God is too exalted [above His creatures] to have feet [like their feet]. All this is impossible [to imagine] in the mind. For whatever the mind conceives is definite is so far as it is limited by place, in the same way as substances are limited, or by substances, in the same way as accidents are. But the impossibility of His being a substance or an accident has been established; consequently His being limited by direction becomes impossible.

     If therefore anything else is meant by the term direction other than these two meanings then the usage will be wrong in terminology and signification; because if God were above the world He would be opposite to it, and everything which is opposite to a body is either equal to it in size, or smaller or larger. All this implied measurement which necessarily requires an object or measurement. But God the One Creator and Ruler of the world is too exalted above such things.

     As to the raising of hands heavenward at the time of petition it is because Heaven is the direction of supplication and implies a description of the one to whom the supplications are offered, such as majesty and grandeur, employing thereby the direction of height to represent the quality of glory and exaltation. For God is above in all dominion and power.

     The eighth principle is that God is seated upon the throne in the sense which He willed by that state of equilibrium-a state which is not inconsistent with the quality of grandeur and to which the symptoms of origination and annihilation do not permeate. It is exactly what has been mean by the ascension to Heaven in the Qur’?n when God said, “‘Then He ascended to Heaven and it was but smoke.”’S?rahXLI:10. This is only through dominion and power, as the poet40 said,

             “Bishr41 has gained dominion over al-‘Ir?q,

                      With neither sword nor shedding of blood.”42

Thus were the people of truth (ahl al-haqq) compelled to pursue such a figurative and allegorical interpretation just as the esoterics (ahl al-b??in) were compelled to interpret the words of God, “And wherever ye are, He is with you.”S?rahLVII:4. This has been taken, by agreement, to mean thorough comprehension and knowledge just as the words of the Prophet, “The heart of the believer lies between two of the fingers of the Merciful [God]”, have been taken to mean might and power, while his words, “The Black Stone is the right hand of God in the earth,” have been taken to mean veneration and honour, because if they were taken literally, the result would have been impossible. Similarly the sitting of God upon the throne, if it were left to mean fixity of location and stability, would necessitate that He who is seated upon the throne be a body in contact with the throne, and be either equal to it in size, or larger or smaller. But all this is impossible, and what leads to the impossible is itself impossible.

     The ninth principle is that God, although removed from form and quantity and unlimited by directions and climes, is nevertheless seen with the eyes in the hereafter, the everlasting abode. For He said, “On that day shall faces beam with light, outlooking towards their Lord.”S?rahLXXV:23-33. But He cannot be seen in this world according to His words, “No vision taketh Him, but He taketh in all vision”S?rahVI:103. and according to His words in His conversation with Moses saying, “Thou shalt not see Me.”S?rahVII:139. Would that I knew how the Mu‘tazilites knew the attributes of God that Moses himself did not know; or how Moses asked to see God S?rahVII:139 when seeing Him was impossible. Ignorance is more likely to be rampant among heretics and sectarians than among the prophets.

     The acceptance of the verse [which speaks] of seeing [God]S?rahLXXV:22-23. literally [is justified] because it does not lead to anything impossible. For sight (ru’yah) is a kind of revelation and knowledge, although it is more complete and clearer than knowledge. And if it is possible to know God without reference to distance or direction (jihah) is also possible to see Him with reference to distance or direction. And just as it is possible for God to see men without confrontation, it is possible for men to see Him without confrontation; and just as it is possible to know Him without modality or form, it is possible to see Him likewise.

     The tenth principle is the knowledge that God is one without any associate, single without any like. He is separate in creating and innovating; He is alone in bringing into existence and inventing. There are none like Him to rival or equal Him, and none opposite Him to contest or contend with Him. The proof of this is found in the words of God when He said, “Had there been in either [Heaven or earth] gods besides God both surely would have gone to ruin.”S?rahXXI:22. This will be readily illustrated [by the fact] that had there been two gods and the first of them willed a certain thing, the second, if he were under compulsion to aid the first, would be a subordinate and impotent being rather than an almighty god; and if the second were able to contradict and oppose the first, he would be a powerful and dominating being while the first would be weak and impotent rather than an almighty god.

The Second Pillar Concerning the Attributes

of God, Involving Ten Principles.

 

     The first principle is the knowledge that the Maker of the world is almighty and that, in His words, “He hath power over all things,”S?rahV:120. He is truthful, because the world is perfect in its making and orderly in its composition. For he who would see a garment of silk, fine in its weave and texture, symmetrical in its embroidery and ornamentation, and would imagine that it was woven by a dead man that has no life, or by a helpless man that has no power, would be completely lacking in intellect and utterly foolish and ignorant.

     The second principle is the knowledge that God is omniscient knowing all things and comprehending all things; nothing in Heaven or on earth is ever hid from His knowledge. He is truthful when He says, “And He knoweth all things.”S?rahII:27. Furthermore evidence of His truthfulness is found in His words when He said, “What! Shall He not know who hath created? For He is the Subtle, the Cognizant.”S?rahLXXVII:14. He has led you, through His creation, to arrive at the knowledge that you can not doubt the evidence which this intricate and orderly creation, even in insignificant and meagre things, offers to the knowledge of the Maker of how to bring order and how to arrange. And what God Himself said is the last word in guidance and in revealing knowledge.

     The third principle is the knowledge that God is living, because he whose knowledge and power are established, his being possessed of life will, of necessity, become established. If it is possible to conceive of the existence of an able, knowing, doing and ruling being yet lifeless, it will be possible to doubt the life of animals, despite their movements, as well as the life of all craftsmen and artisans, all of which is utter ignorance and error.

     The fourth principle is the knowledge that God is willing. He wills all His works and nothing exists which does not depend upon, and proceed from His

will. He is the Creator, the Restorer, the Doer of whatsoever He wills. And how could He not be a willer when, in everything which has proceeded from Him, He could have willed its opposite; and wherever there is no opposite He could have caused the Same thing to proceed from Himself before or after the time in which it has proceeded. His power is equal to coping with both opposites and both times in the same way. Therefore, it is necessary that there should be a will which directs His power to one or the other possible thing. And if knowledge would, in specifying the thing known, render the will needless, so that it could be said that a thing has come into being at a time when its existence had already been known, it would be possible for knowledge to render power needless, so that it could be said that a thing has come into being without [the instrumentality of] power, but simply because its existence had already been known.

     The fifth principle is the knowledge that God is hearing and seeing. Neither the cogitations of the innermost heart nor the secret thoughts and reflections are hid from His sight; the sound of the creeping of the black ant upon the solid rock in the darkest night is not beyond His hearing. And how could He not see and hear when seeing and hearing are [attributes of] perfection not of defect? Could the created be more perfect than the creator, the thing made more magnificent and more complete than the maker? Or how could they ever be equal, no matter how much He might diminish in perfection while His creation and handiwork increase therein? And again how could the argument of Abraham against his father, who ignorantly and erroneously worshipped idols, be sound? Abraham addressed his father saying, “Why dost thou worship that which neither seeth nor heareth nor availeth thee aught?"S?rahXIX:42. But if these defects which characterized the idols of his father characterized his god as well, his argument would have been invalid and his evidence worthless, and the words of God, “This is Our argument which We furnished Abraham against His people,”S?rahXI 83 would have been false. And just at is has been possible for the mind to conceive of His being a doer, although He has none of the physical senses, and knowing, although He has neither heart nor brain, so it is possible to conceive of Him as seeing, although He has no eyeballs, and hearing, although He has no ears, for all cases are the same.

     The sixth principle is that God speaks with a speech which is a self-existing attribute. It is neither a sound nor a letter; it does not resemble the speech of other beings, just as His existence does not resemble theirs. In reality genuine speech is the speech of the soul although sounds were built into words merely as symbols, just as gestures and signals are often used to represent the same thing. How then has this fact not been known by a