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ii.
THE
EH®YAÚ÷
¿OLUÚM
AL-DÈN
Rightly
regarded
as
the
greatest
work
of
Abu@
H®a@med
GÚaza@l^
(450-505/1058-1111),
Eháya@÷
¿olu@m
al-d^n
was
written
after
his
abandonment
of
his
professorship
in
Baghdad
in
488/1095,
while
he
was
devoting
himself
to
the
study
and
practice
of
Sufism
(tasáawwof).
A
brief
description
of
it
would
be
to
say
that
it
is
an
attempt
to
show
how
the
life
of
a
Sufi
can
be
based
on
the
duties
prescribed
by
Islamic
holy
law
(æar^¿a).
In
this
way
it
was
opposing
the
tendency,
found
in
some
Sufi
circles,
of
neglecting
duties
incumbent
on
ordinary
Muslims.
The
work
was
composed
in
Arabic.
Another
work
of
the
same
author,
K^m^a@-ye
sa¿a@dat
is
mainly
an
abbreviated
Persian
version
of
the
Eháya@÷,
though
there
are
some
relatively
slight
differences.
The
Eháya@÷
is
divided
into
four
quarters
and
each
quarter
(rob¿)
into
ten
books,
while
each
book
(keta@b)
is
variously
divided
according
to
the
subject
matter.
The
four
quarters
are:
(1)
Religious
duties
(¿eba@da@t),
(2)
Social
duties
(¿a@da@t),
(3)
What
leads
to
damnation
(mohleka@t),
(4)
What
leads
to
salvation
(monj^a@t).
I.
Religious
duties
(¿eba@da@t).
1.
Knowledge
(¿elm).
This
book
discusses
many
aspects
of
knowledge,
but
it
is
probably
best
understood
as
an
apologia
for
GÚaza@l^'s
own
preference
for
the
life
of
a
Sufi
over
that
of
a
professor
of
jurisprudence.
For
Muslims
the
primary
form
of
¿elm
was
usually
knowledge
of
God
and
his
commands
and
purposes
as
prophets
had
received
them
by
revelation.
This
might
be
described
as
"wisdom"
and
is
contrasted
with
"instrumental
knowledge;"
the
former
is
knowledge
enabling
man
to
live
a
good
life
and
to
attain
to
the
joy
of
paradise,
whereas
the
latter
(which
includes
the
sciences
of
nature)
gives
man
control
over
objects.
Within
the
knowledge
of
divine
things,
however,
a
distinction
must
be
made.
The
Arabic
word
¿olama@÷
(men
of
knowledge),
often
translated
as
"scholars"
or
"jurists"
had
come
to
be
applied
especially
to
those
versed
in
the
legal
aspects
of
the
æar^¿a.
Though
they
were
concerned
with
divine
things,
GÚaza@l^
felt
that
many
of
them
were
using
their
knowledge
to
further
their
own
careers.
He
therefore
contrasted
worldly-minded
and
materialistic
¿olama@÷
with
those
he
called
¿olama@÷
al-a@kòera
(men
of
knowledge
of
the
world
to
come).
He
tries
to
define
exactly
how
far
religious
knowledge
is
profitable
and
how
far
harmful.
2.
The
Doctrines
of
the
creed
(qawa@¿ed
al-¿aqa@÷ed).
The
first
section
is
a
much
fuller
exposition
of
the
two
assertions
of
the
æaha@da
(profession
of
faith):
There
is
no
deity
but
God;
Moháammad
is
the
Messenger
of
God.
Section
two
deals
with
the
stages
or
degrees
of
faith,
beginning
with
learning
by
heart
the
doctrines
of
the
creed,
and
then
considers
how
far
it
is
profitable
to
engage
in
dialectical
argument
(jadal)
and
theological
discussion
(kala@m).
Section
three
reproduces
an
earlier
work
by
GÚaza@l^,
al-Resa@la
al-qods^ya,
which
is
a
statement
of
the
doctrines
of
the
creed
in
forty
propositions:
ten
each
on
God's
essence
and
unity,
his
attributes,
his
actions,
and
points
of
eschatology
and
political
order.
Section
four
deals
with
the
distinction
and
relation
between
faith
(^ma@n)
and
submission
to
God
(esla@m).
3.
Mysteries
of
purity
(asra@r
al-táaha@ra).
After
distinguishing
external
(or
ritual)
purity
from
the
purity
of
the
members
from
sin,
the
purity
of
the
heart,
and
the
purity
of
the
inmost
thoughts,
GÚaza@l^
describes
in
detail
all
that
is
involved
in
ritual
purity,
including
the
lesser
ablution
(wozµu@÷),
complete
ablution
(g@osl),
and
the
treatment
of
hair
and
nails.
4.
Mysteries
of
ritual
worship
or
prayer
(asra@r
al-sáala@t).
After
a
chapter
of
quotations
from
the
Koran
and
Hadith
on
the
merits
of
various
aspects
of
the
worship,
the
detailed
legal
requirements
of
it
are
explained
fully.
Then
GÚaza@l^
goes
on
to
speak
of
the
inner
attributes
that
should
be
cultivated,
humility
and
recollectedness
(or
presence
of
the
heart).
This
is
the
central
point
in
his
fusion
of
Sufism
with
the
religious
duties
of
all
Muslims.
Other
chapters
are
devoted
to
recommendations
for
those
acting
as
imam
or
leader
at
the
worship,
to
the
Friday
worship,
and
to
the
supererogatory
acts
of
worship,
for
those
who
want
to
do
more
than
merely
fulfill
the
minimum
requirements.
5.
The
mysteries
of
almsgiving
(asra@r
al-zaka@t).
This
book
follows
a
similar
pattern
to
the
previous
one.
First
a
statement
is
given
of
the
precise
rules
of
the
æar^¿a
for
the
zaka@t
(legal
alms)
on
various
classes
of
property:
herds
of
animals,
grain,
dates
and
other
agricultural
products,
precious
metals,
articles
of
commerce,
mines,
etc.
Then
the
inner
significance
of
alms
is
expounded,
especially
the
need
to
see
almsgiving
as
a
duty
towards
God
and
to
look
upon
the
recipient
of
alms
as
helping
the
giver
to
fulfill
this
duty.
The
inner
attitude
of
the
recipient
is
also
discussed.
Finally
there
is
mention
of
the
excellence
of
almsgiving
that
is
supererogatory
or
non-obligatory
(sáadaqa@t
al-tatáawwo¿).
6.
The
mysteries
of
fasting
(asra@r
al-sáawm).
There
is
first
a
statement
of
the
precise
rules
for
the
fast
of
Ramazµa@n,
including
practices
commonly
observed
though
not
strictly
obligatory.
Then
comes
consideration
of
inner
attitudes,
and
a
distinction
is
drawn
between
the
fasting
of
ordinary
people,
that
of
the
e‚lite,
and
that
of
the
e‚lite
of
the
e‚lite.
Supererogatory
fasts
are
also
mentioned.
7.
The
mysteries
of
the
pilgrimage
(asra@r
al-háajj).
The
rules
concerning
the
pilgrimage
to
Mecca
(háajj)
and
the
lesser
pilgrimage
(¿omra)
are
explained
in
detail.
The
appropriate
"internal
acts"
are
also
described.
8.
The
recitation
of
the
Koran
(a@da@b
tela@wat
al-Qor÷a@n).
The
recitation
of
the
Koran
is
meritorious.
There
are
certain
external
rules
for
it,
and
also
appropriate
inner
thoughts
and
attitudes.
Though
some
Muslims
insist
that
one
must
always
follow
traditional
interpretations,
no
such
interpretations
exhaust
the
meaning
of
the
verses,
and
there
is
a
place
for
personal
exegesis.
9.
The
remembrance
of
God
and
intercessory
prayer
(al-adòka@r
wa'l-da¿a@wa@t).
The
remembrance
of
God
is
commanded
in
many
passages
of
the
Koran
and
Hadith.
The
Arabic
word
dòekr
means
both
"remembrance"
and
"mention"
and
so
is
applied
to
Sufi
assemblies
for
the
remembrance
of
God.
This
is
achieved
in
part,
both
individually
and
communally,
by
repeating
the
name
of
God
or
phrases
such
as
"Glory
to
God!"
(sáobháa@n
Alla@h).
Do¿a@÷,
intercessory
prayer,
is
also
commended
in
the
Koran
and
Hadith.
Examples
are
given
of
do¿a@÷
attributed
to
Moháammad
and
other
persons.
10.
Devotions
by
day
and
night
(tar@t^b
al-awra@d
wa
tafsá^l
eháya@÷
al-layl).
The
first
chapter
speaks
of
the
seven
divisions
of
the
day
and
four
(or
five)
of
the
night
and
describes
the
appropriate
activity
of
the
pious
Muslim
during
each.
This
varies
according
to
his
station
in
life.
The
second
speaks
of
the
merit
of
rising
by
night
for
devotions
and
gives
practical
counsels.
II.
Social
duties
(¿a@da@t).
1.
Good
customs
in
eating
and
drinking
(a@da@b
al-akl).
Many
of
the
points
mentioned
in
this
book
belong
to
what
westerners
would
call
social
etiquette,
but
GÚaza@l^
brings
out
certain
religious
aspects,
especially
when
a
man
is
eating
alone.
He
also
speaks
of
the
excellence
of
hospitality
and
similar
matters.
2.
Marriage
(a@da@b
al-neka@há).
The
first
chapter
is
a
discussion
of
the
reasons
for
and
against
marriage,
enumerating
the
advantages
(such
as
having
descendants)
and
the
disadvantages
(such
as
incurring
heavy
financial
burdens).
GÚaza@l^
concludes
that
it
depends
on
an
individual's
circumstances
whether
marriage
or
celibacy
is
better
for
him.
(This
is
contrary
to
the
standard
Muslim
view,
but
is
in
accord
with
GÚaza@l^'s
own
practice
of
celibacy
after
his
retirement
from
Baghdad).
The
remaining
two
chapters
deal
with
legal
points
and
practical
counsels.
3.
Good
customs
in
acquiring
wealth
and
gaining
a
living
(a@da@b
al-kasb
wa'l-ma¿a@æ).
Working
for
a
living
in
this
world
is
a
means
towards
the
world
to
come.
A
man
should
not
be
so
engrossed
in
gaining
a
living
that
he
neglects
useful
work.
Practical
details
are
given
about
buying
and
selling,
avoiding
usury
and
the
like.
Some
of
the
points
mentioned
are
legal
requirements,
others
go
far
beyond
the
legal
minimum.
Advice
is
given
on
the
choice
of
occupation.
4.
Lawful
and
unlawful
(al-háala@l
wa'l-háara@m).
This
book
is
concerned
with
wara¿,
the
pious
avoidance
of
and
abstinence
from
what
is
unlawful.
In
GÚaza@l^'s
time
some
men
asserted
that
it
was
almost
impossible
to
gain
things
lawfully,
but
GÚaza@l^
held
that
in
general
the
lawful
and
the
unlawful
are
obvious,
but
that
there
are
a
number
of
doubtful
cases.
He
then
gives
detailed
casuistic
rules
for
doubtful
matters.
Other
chapters
deal
with
the
disposal
of
unlawful
gains
and
with
rules
for
relations
with
princes
who
are
themselves
unjust
or
may
gain
wealth
unlawfully.
5.
Friendship,
brotherhood,
and
other
social
relationships
(a@da@b
al-olfa
wa'l-okòu@wa
wa'l-sáohába…).
To
live
in
friendly
relations
with
God
is
a
great
good
and
is
blessed
by
God.
Brotherhood
(or
friendship)
in
God
is
to
be
distinguished
from
brotherhood
with
a
worldly
basis.
In
the
former,
someone
is
loved
with
a
view
to
an
other-worldly
end
(e.g.,
the
love
of
a
pupil
for
his
religious
teacher;
or
a
man
may
be
filled
with
love
for
God
and
love
others
for
God's
sake).
There
may
also
be
hate
for
God's
sake,
e.g.
of
those
who
disobey
God.
Chapter
two
sets
out
an
ideal
of
mutual
conduct
between
friends,
and
chapter
three
an
ideal
of
conduct
towards
every
Muslim,
towards
neighbors,
towards
close
relatives,
and
towards
slaves.
6.
Life
in
seclusion
(a@da@b
al-¿ozla).
There
are
different
options
about
the
respective
merits
of
life
in
seclusion
(or
retreat)
and
life
in
the
world
among
men.
The
arguments
from
the
Koran
and
Hadith
are
not
conclusive,
and
it
is
necessary
to
look
at
the
advantages
and
disadvantages
of
each
form
of
life.
Seclusion
enables
a
man
to
devote
himself
more
completely
to
the
remembrance
and
worship
of
God
and
to
grow
in
knowledge
of
him.
It
also
makes
it
easier
for
a
man
to
avoid
various
sins.
Life
in
the
world,
however,
enables
a
man
to
grow
in
knowledge,
to
be
useful
to
others,
to
enjoy
the
society
of
others,
and
to
acquire
certain
social
virtues.
7.
Good
customs
during
travel
(a@da@b
al-safar).
Travel
may
be
for
various
purposes,
some
worldly,
some
religious
(such
as
pilgrimage);
some
travel
is
unlawful,
some
meritorious.
Some
practical
points
are
mentioned.
A
second
chapter
deals
with
legal
matters,
such
as
permitted
modifications
in
ablutions
and
times
of
worship,
and
the
determination
of
the
qebla
and
the
exact
hours
of
prayer.
8.
Good
customs
in
hearing
music
and
in
ecstasy
(a@da@b
al-sama@¿
wa'l-wajd).
GÚaza@l^
holds
that
music
is
a
means
to
discover
what
is
really
in
a
man's
heart.
Some
authorities,
such
as
Ma@lek
b.
Anas,
said
that
listening
to
music
was
forbidden,
but
GÚaza@l^
argues
that
it
is
lawful
in
general,
but
may
be
unlawful
incidentally.
He
enumerates
seven
types
of
occasion
where
music
is
permitted.
The
last
is
where
a
man
loves
God
and
seeks
to
come
near
to
him;
in
this
case
music
leads
to
mystical
"states"
(aháwa@l)
and
ecstasy
(wajd).
These
states
and
ecstasy
are
further
described,
and
practical
counsels
are
given
to
those
who
listen
to
music
in
religious
assemblies
with
a
view
to
attaining
to
ecstasy.
9.
The
duty
of
commanding
good
and
forbidding
evil
(al-amr
be'l-ma¿ru@f
wa'l-nahy
¿an
al-monkar).
This
is
an
important
principle
of
the
Islamic
religion,
mentioned
in
the
Koran
and
Hadith,
but
in
GÚaza@l^'s
view
it
is
imperfectly
understood
and
is
neglected
in
practice.
The
mohátaseb,
the
person
censuring,
should
be
a
mature
Muslim
known
for
his
uprightness
(¿ada@la)
and
capable
of
censuring
effectively.
The
matter
censured
should
be
something
generally
disapproved
of,
present,
and
obvious.
There
are
degrees
of
censure,
beginning
with
informing
the
person
censured
and
exhorting
him
and,
in
extreme
cases,
going
on
to
the
use
of
armed
force.
A
list
is
given
of
reprehensible
acts.
With
regard
to
rulers,
it
is
lawful
to
inform
them
that
an
act
is
disapproved
and
to
exhort
them
to
give
it
up;
but
GÚaza@l^
regrets
that
in
his
day
men
are
not
prepared
to
go
further
and
risk
martyrdom.
10.
The
life
and
character
of
the
Prophet
(a@da@b
al-ma¿^æa
wa
akòla@q
al-nobu@wa).
This
book
is
restricted
to
social
matters.
Among
the
qualities
of
character
enumerated
and
illustrated
are
generosity,
patience,
courage,
gentleness,
chasteness
of
speech
and
clothing,
magnanimity.
Many
facts
demonstrate
the
Prophet's
sincerity.
III.
What
leads
to
damnation
(al-mohleka@t).
1.
Explanation
of
the
mysteries
of
the
heart
(æarhá
¿aja@÷eb
al-qalb).
Man
differs
from
other
creatures
in
that
he
is
capable
of
having
knowledge
of
God,
and
this
comes
to
him
by
his
heart
(qalb).
Knowledge
of
the
heart
is
of
the
highest
importance
for
the
Sufi.
Qalb
denotes
both
the
physical
organ
and
a
subtle
spiritual
faculty
(latá^fa
ru@háa@n^ya).
This
last
is
also
called
ru@há
(spirit)
and
nafs
(self,
soul).
Ru@há
may
also
mean
a
delicate
physical
body,
and
nafs
may
also
refer
to
the
desire
and
anger
against
which
man
has
to
struggle.
The
"soul
at
rest"
(motÂma÷enna)
is
that
which
has
overcome
the
passions;
the
"blaming
soul"
(lawwa@ma)
is
that
which
is
engaged
in
struggle;
the
"soul
commanding
evil"
(amma@ra
be'l-su@÷)
is
obeying
the
passions
and
the
devil.
¿Aql
(reason)
may
mean
either
knowledge
or
that
which
knows,
namely
the
heart.
The
heart
may
be
said
to
have
armies
(limbs,
organs,
senses,
etc.)
through
which
it
carries
on
the
struggle;
but
it
is
distinguished
from
animals
by
knowledge
(¿elm)
and
will
(era@da).
Four
types
of
attribute
may
be
distinguished
in
the
heart;
the
predatorial
(sabo¿^ya),
connected
with
anger;
the
bestial
(bah^m^ya),
connected
with
desire;
the
magisterial
or
spiritual
(rabba@n^ya),
connected
with
leadership
and
knowledge;
and
the
diabolical
(æaytÂa@n^ya),
through
which
evil
and
vice
are
possible.
These
can
be
represented
by
a
dog,
a
pig,
a
wise
man,
and
a
demon.
The
different
kinds
of
knowledge
are
then
discussed,
and
the
difference
between
ordinary
knowledge
and
that
acquired
by
divine
inspiration
(elha@m).
Then
the
action
of
the
devil
on
the
heart
is
explained,
and
the
nature
of
man's
responsibility
for
his
actions.
2.
Moral
education
(r^a@zµat
al-nafs
wa
tahdò^b
al-akòla@q
wa
¿ala@jat
amra@zµ
al-qalb).
The
diseases
of
the
heart
are
more
serious
than
those
of
the
body,
since
they
lead
to
an
evil
and
vicious
character,
and
it
is
important
to
know
how
to
cure
them.
In
a
good
man
there
are
four
basic
virtues:
wisdom,
courage,
moderation,
justice
(háekma,
æaja@¿a,
¿effa,
¿adl).
In
this
GÚaza@l^
is
in
the
Platonic
tradition,
and
he
also
speaks
of
the
Aristotelian
conception
of
virtue
as
a
mean.
A
virtue
such
as
generosity
can
be
gradually
acquired
by
making
oneself
perform
generous
acts.
The
diseases
of
the
soul
are
due
to
following
desires,
and
the
cure
is
to
renounce
the
desires.
Finally
there
are
descriptions
of
the
moral
training
of
children
and
of
Sufi
disciples.
3.
The
subjugation
of
the
two
desires
(kasr
al-æahwatayn).
The
two
desires
are
those
of
the
belly
and
genitals.
With
regard
to
the
first
it
should
be
realized
that
hunger
has
several
advantages
over
satiety.
The
practice
of
abstinence
can
be
gradually
increased;
but
the
man
who
is
abstinent
to
an
excessive
degree
becomes
liable
to
fall
into
faults.
The
desire
for
sexual
intercourse
is
beneficial
in
that
its
pleasure
gives
man
an
analogy
for
the
pleasures
of
paradise
and
that
it
perpetuates
mankind.
In
respect
of
this
there
can
be
excess
(especially
infatuation,
¿eæq,
for
a
single
person)
and
also
deficiency;
only
moderation
in
accord
with
reason
and
revelation
is
praiseworthy.
It
is
better
in
general
for
a
Sufi
disciple
(mor^d)
not
to
marry;
but
if
he
falls
into
sin,
even
only
through
his
eyes,
he
should
marry.
4.
Faults
of
the
tongue
(a@fa@t
al-lesa@n).
After
quotations
about
the
dangers
of
the
tongue
and
the
excellence
of
silence,
twenty
defects
are
mentioned
in
order
of
increasing
seriousness:
speaking
about
what
does
not
concern
one;
speaking
too
much;
engaging
in
useless
topics;
disputing
and
arguing
(unfairly);
opposing
others
in
hostile
fashion;
speaking
with
affectation;
indecent
talk;
cursing;
singing
and
reciting
poetry;
pleasantries;
mocking
and
making
fun
of
others;
divulging
secrets;
making
promises
falsely;
telling
lies
(but
lies
are
sometimes
permissible);
speaking
behind
people's
back
(discussed
at
great
length);
tale-bearing;
being
double-tongued;
praising
others
unwisely;
using
words
carelessly
especially
in
respect
of
God
and
his
attributes;
ordinary
men's
questioning
about
theological
subtleties.
5.
The
condemnation
of
anger,
hatred,
and
envy
(dòamm
al-g@azµab
wa'l-háeqd
wa'l-háasad).
Anger
is
created
in
men
by
God
in
order
that
they
may
repel
evils
which
would
destroy
or
harm
them.
There
is
a
just
mean
in
respect
of
anger,
and
this
is
praiseworthy;
but
both
excess
and
deficiency
are
blamed.
Suggestions
are
given
for
the
control
of
anger
in
different
cases.
Magnanimity
is
praiseworthy.
When
anger
cannot
be
expressed
it
produces
hatred,
which
is
entirely
blameworthy
and
leads
to
other
evils.
Instead
of
hating
one
should
pardon
wrongs
done
to
one
and
show
compassion.
Envy
proceeds
from
hatred
and
is
in
respect
of
benefits
God
has
bestowed
on
other
men.
Suggestions
are
given
for
overcoming
it.
6.
The
condemnation
of
this
world
(dòamm
al-donya@).
This
world
is
like
a
woman
who
attracts
men
by
her
beauty
and
then
kills
them.
Sayings
are
quoted
of
Moháammad,
Jesus,
and
others
condemning
love
of
the
world.
It
is
important
to
know
what
things
to
avoid
in
the
world
and
what
not
to
avoid.
The
just
mean
here
is
to
take
the
world
for
the
sake
of
religion,
not
for
its
own
sake.
7.
The
condemnation
of
avarice
and
of
love
of
wealth
(dòamm
al-bokòl
wa
dòamm
háobb
al-ma@l).
Wealth
and
material
possessions
are
both
blamed
and
praised
in
the
Koran
and
Hadith.
Wealth
may
enable
a
man
to
perform
his
religious
duties
better,
to
help
others,
and
to
perform
services
to
the
community
(such
as
building
mosques
and
hospitals).
Poverty
is
to
be
praised,
provided
it
is
accompanied
by
contentment
and
not
by
cupidity
and
covetousness
of
what
others
have.
To
avoid
these
faults
one
should
be
content
with
what
is
strictly
necessary
to
maintain
life,
should
rely
on
God's
promise,
and
should
be
aware
of
the
danger
of
great
wealth.
Opposed
to
avarice
is
generosity.
The
highest
degree
of
generosity
is
to
give
away
what
one
has
need
of.
8.
The
condemnation
of
(love
of)
fame
and
of
hypocrisy
(dòamm
al-ja@h
wa'l-r^a@÷).
Love
of
fame
is
like
love
of
wealth;
the
latter
is
concerned
with
worldly
goods,
the
former
with
gaining
control
of
men's
hearts.
The
man
who
praises
another
is
his
slave.
Love
of
fame
is
countered
by
knowledge
of
the
transience
of
worldly
glory
and
by
seeking
renown
only
in
the
eyes
of
God,
not
of
men.
The
pious
man
hates
praise
from
men.
Hypocrisy
is
essentially
the
seeking
of
fame
and
renown
by
religious
practices
(¿eba@da@t),
though
there
are
also
other
forms
of
hypocrisy
which
are
not
blameworthy,
such
as
desiring
to
appear
well
in
people's
eyes.
Hypocrisy
can
be
practiced
by
one's
body,
dress,
language,
acts,
and
personal
relationships.
It
may
be
open
or
hidden,
even
from
the
man
himself.
This
unconscious
hypocrisy
is
greatly
feared
by
the
virtuous.
To
avoid
hypocrisy
a
man
must
take
no
pleasure
in
being
praised
and
feel
no
pain
at
being
blamed;
he
must
also
be
aware
of
the
dangers
during
religious
practices
and
turn
away
from
them.
9.
The
condemnation
of
pride
and
complacency
(dòamm
al-kebr
wa'l-¿ojb).
Pride
may
be
expressed
in
one's
gait,
clothing,
etc.;
but
this
is
rather
takabbor
(proud
bearing).
Properly
speaking,
pride
is
a
trait
of
the
soul.
It
consists
in
regarding
oneself
as
superior
to
others
in
some
respect,
sometimes
even
as
superior
to
the
prophets
and
to
God
himself.
The
opposite
is
humility
(tawa@zµo¿).
Pride
may
be
in
respect
of
one's
learning,
religious
practices,
birth,
physical
beauty
and
strength,
wealth,
or
the
number
of
one's
following.
Pride
may
be
combated
and
humility
acquired
by
reflecting
on
man's
weakness
and
dependence
on
God,
and
then
by
special
considerations
according
to
the
basis
of
one's
pride.
True
humility
is
a
just
mean.
Complacency
(or
self-satisfaction)
consists
in
thinking
highly
of
one's
learning
or
achievements
or
wealth,
not
as
gifts
from
God
but
as
one's
own.
It
leads
to
pride
and
a
failure
to
be
aware
of
one's
sins.
Since
complacency
is
due
to
ignorance,
its
cure
is
through
the
relevant
knowledge.
10.
The
condemnation
of
delusion
(dòamm
al-g@aru@r).
Delusion
is
a
form
of
ignorance,
where
the
deluded
man
believes
and
regards
a
thing
to
be
different
from
what
it
really
is
and
where
this
false
belief
coincides
with
his
desires.
For
example,
an
unbeliever
may
hold
that
certainty
is
better
than
doubt
and
that
this
world
and
its
pleasures
are
certain
and
the
world
to
come
doubtful,
and
so
prefer
this
world
to
the
world
to
come.
Other
examples
are
given,
and
then
there
is
a
detailed
account
of
the
forms
of
delusion
or
self-deception
to
which
four
classes
of
men
are
liable:
men
of
learning
(ahl
al-¿elm),
experts
in
religious
practices
(arba@b
al-¿eba@da
wa'l-¿amal),
would-be
Sufis
(motasáawwefa),
and
wealthy
men
(arba@b
al-amwa@l).
IV.
What
leads
to
salvation
(al-monj^a@t).
1.
Repentance
(tawba).
Repentance
consists
of:
(a)
the
knowledge
that
sins
are
harmful
and
are
a
veil
between
man
and
God,
his
beloved;
(b)
the
state
of
being
penitent
(nadm);
and
(c)
the
appropriate
act,
e.g.,
the
decision
not
to
repeat
the
sin.
Repentance
is
a
religious
duty
in
all
its
parts,
to
be
performed
without
delay,
and
by
all
who
seek
to
come
close
to
God.
Sins
arise
from
the
four
attributes
(or
instincts)
of
the
heart
(mentioned
in
II/1)
and
may
be
in
respect
to
either
God
or
men.
They
may
also
be
classified
as
small
(sáag@^r)
or
great
(kab^r).
Small
sins
may
become
great
in
various
ways,
e.g.,
by
perseverance
in
them.
Men
may
draw
near
to
perfection
in
repentance
to
a
greater
or
lesser
extent;
this
is
in
respect
to
the
depth
of
their
repentance
and
their
continuing
to
be
influenced
by
it.
Since
sin
is
like
a
disease,
the
physicians
of
religion,
i.e.,
the
prophets
and
learned
men,
should
endeavor
to
bring
to
repentance
those
who
persist
in
sin.
2.
Patience
and
gratitude
(al-sáabr
wa
al-æokr).
Patience
is
a
station
(maqa@m)
or
stage
(manzel)
in
the
religious
life,
and
like
all
stations
is
characterized
by
(a)
knowledge
(ma¿a@ref),
which
leads
to
(b)
states
(aháwa@l),
which
lead
to
(c)
activity
(a¿ma@l).
There
are
two
kinds
of
patience.
One
is
of
the
body
and
consists
in
enduring
pain
and
suffering.
One
is
of
the
soul
and
consists
either
in
enduring
natural
desires
(without
sinning)—and
this
is
continence
(¿effa)—or
in
enduring
what
one
does
not
want;
and
this
has
various
names,
such
as
courage
and
self-control.
Gratitude
includes
the
knowledge
that
all
good
things
are
from
God,
together
with
a
feeling
of
joy,
not
merely
because
of
the
thing
itself
nor
of
the
fact
that
it
is
an
expression
of
God's
love,
but
because
it
enables
one
to
serve
him.
This
feeling
leads
to
appropriate
acts.
There
are
many
types
of
good
gift
(ne¿ma).
Patience
is
concerned
with
the
trials
sent
by
God
and
gratitude
with
his
gifts.
Absolutely,
patience
is
more
meritorious
but
there
are
many
grades
of
both
patience
and
gratitude.
3.
Fear
and
hope
(al-kòawf
wa'l-raja@÷).
Hope
is
a
station
(maqa@m)
when
a
man
is
established
in
it,
and
is
a
state
(háa@l)
when
it
is
only
for
a
time.
Hope
leads
to
activity,
in
contrast
to
its
opposite,
despair
(ya÷s).
Hope
may
be
increased
by
certain
practices
and
considerations.
Fear
of
eternal
punishment
is
more
effective
than
hope
in
the
case
of
most
men.
Fear
also
leads
to
activity.
During
a
man's
life,
fear
is
preferable
since
it
leads
to
an
avoidance
of
sin;
but
at
the
time
of
death,
hope
is
preferable.
Higher
than
the
fear
of
Hell
is
the
fear
of
God
himself
and
of
separation
from
him.
4.
Poverty
and
asceticism
(al-faqr
wa'l-zohd).
Every
being
is
poor
compared
with
God
and
is
dependent
on
him,
but
poverty
is
here
discussed
in
respect
of
wealth.
There
are
several
degrees:
to
avoid
and
hate
wealth
(this
is
asceticism);
not
to
rejoice
in
having
wealth,
yet
not
to
reject
it;
to
prefer
to
have
wealth
yet
to
be
content
when
one
has
none;
to
suffer
from
the
absence
of
wealth.
Poverty
is
more
meritorious
than
wealth.
To
the
poor
certain
good
practices
are
recommended,
and
certain
rules
to
be
observed
when
seeking
alms.
Asceticism
consists
in
renouncing
things
which
are
permitted.
There
are
many
kinds
and
degrees
of
asceticism.
The
highest
degree
is
to
renounce
everything
except
God.
The
man
who
renounces
everything
in
this
world
but
seeks
the
joys
of
paradise
is
at
a
lower
level.
There
is
a
detailed
discussion
of
asceticism
in
respect
of
food,
clothing,
housing,
marriage,
money,
and
influence.
5.
The
oneness
(of
God)
and
confident
trust
(al-tawhá@^d
wa'l-tawakkol).
Confident
trust
is
a
stage
and
station
of
those
brought
near
to
God
(moqarrabu@n).
It
is
closely
linked
with
tawhá^d,
and
this
last
is
of
four
degrees.
(The
word
tawhá^d
is
commonly
translated
"unity
[of
God],"
but
it
properly
means
"making
God
one"
or
"asserting
God's
unity.")
(1)
A
man
may
confess
God's
unity
with
his
lips
without
believing
in
his
heart.
(2)
A
man
may
confess
with
the
lips
and
believe
in
the
heart,
as
do
ordinary
Muslims.
(3)
A
man
may,
by
illumination
from
above,
observe
all
things
as
coming
from
God
the
One.
(4)
A
man
may
see
in
existence
only
one
thing,
God.
Confident
trust
is
linked
with
the
third
meaning.
The
nature
of
confident
trust
is
further
explained
by
giving
detailed
rules
and
considering
particular
cases.
6.
Love,
yearning,
familiarity,
and
approval
(al-maháabba
wa'l-æawq
wa'l-ons
wa'l-rezµa@).
Love
(for
God)
is
the
highest
of
the
stations
(maqa@ma@t)
in
the
spiritual
life;
yearning,
familiarity,
and
approval
are
its
fruits.
In
general
five
kinds
of
love
can
be
distinguished,
and
all
of
these
find
their
highest
degree
in
love
for
God.
The
most
sublime
pleasure
is
in
knowledge
(ma¿refa)
of
God
and
contemplation
of
his
face
(al-nazáar
ela@
wajheh).
Yearning
is
the
desire
for
something
partly
known
and
partly
unknown;
and
so
yearning
for
God
is
desire
for
a
fuller
knowledge
of
him.
Familiarity
is
the
joy
experienced
from
nearness
to
the
Beloved
and
contemplation
of
Him.
Approval,
that
is,
the
approval
or
joyful
acceptance
of
God's
decrees,
is
also
a
fruit
of
love,
and
is
itself
a
station.
Do¿a@,
intercessory
and
petitionary
prayer,
is
not
contrary
to
approval.
7.
Intention,
single-mindedness,
and
sincerity
(al-n^ya
wa'l-ekòla@sá
wa'l-sáedq).
According
to
Hadith,
acts
are
judged
by
the
intention
of
the
agent.
The
relation
of
intention
and
act
is
fully
discussed.
Single-mindedness
or
purity
of
intention
is
usually
restricted
to
the
case
where
the
motive
is
to
draw
near
to
God.
There
are
degrees
of
single-mindedness,
and
it
can
be
impaired
in
various
ways,
notably
by
ostentation
(re÷ya).
Sincerity
may
be
in
respect
of
speech,
intention,
resolve,
the
accomplishment
of
one's
resolve,
works,
and
the
stations
of
religion.
Sincerity
in
the
fullest
sense
has
all
these
aspects.
8.
Attentiveness
and
self-examination
(al-mora@qaba
wa'l-moháa@saba).
This
book
is
not
fully
described
by
the
title.
It
consists
of
a
description
of
the
six
stations
(maqa@ma@t)
which
constitute
perseverance
or
steadfastness
(mora@batÂa@).
(1)
First
is
moæa@ratÂa,
the
statement
of
conditions;
reason
(¿aql)
is
conceived
as
a
merchant
in
partnership
with
the
soul
(nafs),
who
before
commencing
the
undertaking
states
the
conditions
to
which
the
soul
is
expected
to
conform.
(2)
Next
is
mora@qaba,
attentiveness,
that
is
to
God
the
Watcher
(raq^b),
as
practiced
by
"those
brought
near"
and
"the
men
of
the
right
hand."
(3)
Self-examination
should
be
made
at
the
end
of
each
day
to
discover
whether
the
balance
of
one's
acts
is
a
credit
or
debit.
(4)
Self-punishment
(mo¿a@qabat
al-nafs)
follows.
(5)
Then
comes
moja@hada
(engaging
in
spiritual
struggle).
(6)
Finally
there
is
reproach
and
reproof
of
one's
self
(tawb^kò
al-nafs
wa'l-mo¿a@tabatoha@).
9.
Meditation
(tafakkor).
Meditation
or
contemplation
is
described
as
causing
to
be
present
in
the
heart
two
thoughts
in
such
a
way
that
from
them
a
third
thought
arises.
The
subject
of
meditation
may
be
either
man,
with
his
sins,
duties,
weaknesses,
and
strengths,
or
God
with
his
names
and
attributes.
Many
natural
phenomena
may
act
as
signs.
10.
Remembrance
of
death
and
what
follows
it
(dòekr
al-mawt
wa
ma@
ba¿dah).
It
is
good
that
death
should
be
often
in
one's
mind.
Not
to
hope
for
a
long
life
is
meritorious;
this
includes
acting
at
once
and
not
postponing
one's
act.
The
pangs
and
anguish
of
death
are
worse
for
those
who
have
cause
to
expect
punishment
in
hell.
Accounts
are
given
of
death-bed
sayings
of
the
Prophet
and
other
Muslims.
Seemly
deportment
at
funerals
is
commended,
and
then
follow
descriptions
of
the
experiences
of
the
man
between
death
and
the
Judgment,
and
in
the
world
to
come,
culminating
in
the
vision
of
God.
The
final
word
of
the
whole
work
is
an
assertion
of
the
wideness
of
God's
mercy
in
the
hope
that
this
will
be
a
good
augury
for
the
writer.
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Translations
of
separate
books
into
European
languages
include:
I/2
by
H.
Bauer
as
Die
Dogmatik
al-Ghazali's
nach
dem
II.
Buche
seines
Hauptwerkes,
Halle,
1912;
N.
A.
Faris
as
The
Foundations
of
the
Articles
of
Faith,
Lahore,
1974.
I/3
by
N.
A.
Faris
as
The
Mysteries
of
Purity,
Lahore,
1991.
I/4
by
E.
E.
Calverley,
as
Worship
in
Islam,
Madras,
1925,
repr.
Westport,
Conn.,
1981.
I/5
by
N.
A.
Faris
as
The
Mysteries
of
Almsgiving,
Beirut,
1966,
Lahore,
1974.
I/6
by
N.
A.
Faris
as
The
Mysteries
of
Fasting,
Lahore,
1971;
with
the
Arabic
text
by
A.
Moussali
as
Revivification
des
sciences
de
religion:
le
livre
de
l'amour,
Lyon
and
Paris,
n.d.
(1990s).
I/8
by
M.
A.
Quasem
as
The
Recitation
and
Interpretation
of
the
Qur÷an:
al-Ghazali's
Theory,
Selangor,
Malaysia,
1979.
I/9
by
K.
Nakamuro
as
Invocations
and
Supplications,
Tokyo,
1973,
2nd
rev.
ed.,
Cambridge,
1988;
by
P.
Cuperly
as
Temps
et
prieres,
Paris,
1990.
II/2
by
H.
Bauer
as
Von
der
Ehe,
Halle,
1917;
by
L.
Bercher
and
G.
H.
Bousquet
as
Le
livre
des
bons
usages
en
matiere
de
mariage,
Paris,
1953;
by
M.
Holland
as
The
Proper
Conduct
of
Marriage
in
Islam,
Hollywood,
Fla.,
1998.
II/4
by
H.
Bauer
as
Erlaubtes
und
Verbotenes
Gut,
Halle,
1922;
by
H.
Djebnoun
as
Le
livre
du
licite
et
de
ilicite,
Beirut,
1999.
II/5
by
M.
Holland
as
On
the
Duties
of
Brotherhood,
Woodstock,
N.
Y.,
1976.
II/9
by
L.
Bercher
as
L'obligation
d'ordonner
le
bien
et
d'interdire
le
mal,
Institute
des
belles
lettres
arabes
24,
Tunis,
1961.
II/10
by
L.
Zolondek
as
Book
XX
of
al-Ghaza@l^'s
Iháya@÷
¿ulu@m
al-d^n,
Leiden,
1963.
III/1
by
H.
Kindermann
as
Über
die
guten
Sitten
beim
Essen
und
Tinken,
Leiden,
1964.
III/2-3
by
T.
J.
Winter
as
On
Disciplining
the
Soul
and
on
Breaking
the
Two
Desires,
Cambridge,
1995.
III/3
by
C.
E.
Farah
as
Abstinence
in
Islam:
Curbing
the
Two
Appetites,
Minneapolis,
1992.
IV/1
by
M.
S.
Stern
as
Al-Ghazzali
on
Repentance,
New
Delhi,
1990;
IV/3
by
W.
McKane
as
al-Ghazali's
Book
of
Fear
and
Hope,
Leiden,
1962.
IV/5
by
H.
Wehr
as
Al-Ghazzali's
Buch
vom
Gottvertrauen,
Halle,
1940;
IV/6
by
H.
H.
Dingemans
as
Alghazali's
Boek
der
liefde,
Leiden,
1938;
by
M.-L.
Siauve
as
Livre
de
l'amour,
du
desire
ardent,
de
l'intimite
et
du
parfait
contentment,
Paris,
1986.
IV/1-6
by
R.
Gramlich
as
Muhammad
al-Ghazzalis
Lehre
von
den
Stuffen
zur
Gotteslieb,
Wiesbaden,
1984.
IV/7
by
H.
Bauer
as
Uber
Intention,
reine
Absicht
und
Wahrhaftigkeit,
Halle,
1916.
(W.
MONTGOMERY
WATT)
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